CHAPTER VII

ABNORMAL FLYING STUNTS AND SPEEDS

"PEQUOD, a Frenchman, yesterday repeatedly performed the remarkable feat of flying with the machine upside down. This exhibition shows that the age of perfection has arrived in flying machines, and that stability is an accomplished fact."—News item.

This is quoted to show how little the general public knows of the subject of aviation. It correctly represents the achievement of the aviator, and it probably voiced the sentiment of many scientific men, as well as of the great majority of aviators.

A few days afterwards, the same newspaper published the following:

"Lieutenant ——, while experimenting yesterday morning, met his death by the overturning of his machine at an altitude of 300 meters. Death was instantaneous, and the machine was completely destroyed."

The machines used by the two men were of the same manufacture, as Pequod used a stock machine which was strongly braced to support the inverted weight, but otherwise it was not unlike the well known type of monoplane.

Beachy has since repeated the experiment with a bi-plane, and it is a feat which has many imitators, and while those remarkable exhibitions are going on, one catastrophe follows the other with the same regularity as in the past.

Let us consider this phase of flying. Are they of any value, and wherein do they teach anything that may be utilized,

LACK OF IMPROVEMENTS IN MACHINES.—It is remarkable that not one single forward step has been taken to improve the type of flying machines for the past five years. They possess the same shape, their stabilizing qualities and mechanism for assuring stability are still the same.

MEN EXPEDITED, AND NOT THE MACHINE.—The fact is, that during this period the man has been exploited and not the machine. Men have learned, some few of them, to perform peculiar stunts, such as looping the loop, the side glide, the drop, and other features, which look, and are, hazardous, all of which pander to the sentiments of the spectators.

ABNORMAL FLYING OF NO VALUE.—It would be too broad an assertion to say that it has absolutely no value, because everything has its use in a certain sense, but if we are to judge from the progress of inventions in other directions, such exhibitions will not improve the art of building the device, or make a fool-proof machine.

Indeed, it is the very thing which serves as a deterrent, rather than an incentive. If machines can be handled in such a remarkable manner, they must be, indeed, perfect! Nothing more is needed! They must represent the highest structural type of mechanism!

That is the idea sought to be conveyed in the first paragraph quoted. It is pernicious, instead of praiseworthy, because it gives a false impression, and it is remarkable that even certain scientific journals have gravely discussed the perfected (?) type of flying machine as demonstrated by the experiments alluded to.

THE ART OF JUGGLING.—We may, occasionally, see a cyclist who understands the art of balancing so well that he can, with ease, ride a machine which has only a single wheel; or he can, with a stock bicycle, ride it in every conceivable attitude, and make it perform all sorts of feats.

It merely shows that man has become an expert at juggling with a machine, the same as he manipulates balls, and wheels, and other artifices, by his dexterity.

PRACTICAL USES THE BEST TEST.—The bicycle did not require such displays to bring it to perfection. It has been the history of every invention that improvements were brought about, not by abnormal experiments, but by practical uses and by normal developments.

The ability of an aviator to fly with the machine in an inverted position is no test of the machine's stability, nor does it in any manner prove that it is correctly built. It is simply and solely a juggling feat—something in the capacity of a certain man to perform, and attract attention because they are out of the ordinary.

CONCAVED AND COXVEX PLANES:—They were performed as exhibition features, and intended as such, and none of the exponents of that kind of flying have the effrontery to claim that they prove anything of value in the machine itself, except that it incidentally has destroyed the largely vaunted claim that concaved wings for supporting surfaces are necessary.

HOW MOMENTUM IS A FACTOR IN INVERTED FLYING.— When flying "upside down," the convex side of the plane takes the pressure of the air, and maintains, so it is asserted, the weight of the machine. This is true during that period when the loop is being made. The evolution is made by first darting down, as shown in Fig. 31, from the horizontal position, 1, to the position 2, where the turn begins.

Fig. 31. Flying upside down.

TURNING MOVEMENT.—Now note the characteristic angles of the tail, which is the controlling factor. In position 1 the tail is practically horizontal. In fact, in all machines, at high flight, the tail is elevated so as to give little positive angle of incidence to the supporting planes.

In position No. 2, the tail is turned to an angle of incidence to make the downward plunge, and when the machine has assumed the vertical, as in position 3, the tail is again reversed to assume the angle, as in 1, when flying horizontally.

At the lower turn, position 4, the tail is turned similar to the angle of position 2, which throws the rear end of the machine down, and as the horizontal line of flight is resumed, in an inverted position, as in position 4, the tail has the same angle, with relation to the frame, as the supporting planes.

During this evolution the engine is running, and the downward plunge develops a tremendous speed, and the great momentum thus acquired, together with the pulling power of the propeller while thus in flight, is sufficient to propel it along horizontally, whatever the plane surface curve, or formation may be.

It is the momentum which sustains it in space, not the air pressure beneath the wings, for reasons which we have heretofore explained. Flights of sufficient duration have thus been made to prove that convex, as well as concave surfaces are efficient; nevertheless, in its proper place we have given an exposition of the reasoning which led to the adoption of the concaved supporting surfaces.

WHEN CONCAVED PLANES ARE DESIRABLE.— Unquestionably, for slow speeds the concaved wing is desirable, as will be explained, but for high speeds, surface formation has no value. That is shown by Pequod's feat.

THE SPEED MANIA.—This is a type of mania which pervades every field of activity in the building of aeroplanes. Speed contests are of more importance to the spectators on exhibition grounds than stability or durability. Builders pander to this, hence machines are built on lines which disregard every consideration of safety while at normal flight.

USES OF FLYING MACHINES.—The machine as now constructed is of little use commercially. Within certain limitations it is valuable for scouting purposes, and attempts have been made to use it commercially. But the unreliable character of its performances, due to the many elements which are necessary to its proper working, have operated against it.

PERFECTION IN MACHINES MUST COME BEFORE SPEED.—Contrary to every precept in the building of a new article, the attempt is made to make a machine with high speed, which, in the very nature of things, operates against its improvement. The opposite lack of speed—is of far greater utility at this stage of its development.

THE RANGE OF ITS USE.—The subject might be illustrated by assuming that we have a line running from A to Z, which indicates the range of speeds in aeroplanes. The limits of speeds are fairly stated as being within thirty and eighty- five miles per hour. Less than thirty miles are impossible with any type of plane, and while some have made higher speeds than eighty-five miles it may be safe to assume that such flights took place under conditions where the wind contributed to the movement.

Fig. 32. Chart showing Range of Uses

COMMERCIAL UTILITY.—Before machines can be used successfully they must be able to attain slower speeds. Alighting is the danger factor. Speed machines are dangerous, not in flight or at high speeds, but when attempting to land. A large plane surface is incompatible with speed, which is another illustration that at high velocities supporting surfaces are not necessary.

Commercial uses require safety as the first element, and reliability as the next essential. For passenger service there must be an assurance that it will not overturn, or that in landing danger is not ever-present. For the carrying of freight interrupted service will militate against it.

How few are the attempts to solve the problem of decreased speed, and what an eager, restless campaign is being waged to go faster and faster, and the addition of every mile above the record is hailed as another illustration of the perfection (?) of the flying machine.

To be able to navigate a machine at ten, or fifteen miles an hour, would scarcely be interesting enough to merit a paragraph; but such an accomplishment would be of far more value than all of Pequod's feats, and be more far-reaching in its effects than a flight of two hundred miles per hour.

CHAPTER VIII

KITES AND GLIDERS

KITES are of very ancient origin, and in China, Japan, and the Malayan Peninsula, they have been used for many years as toys, and for the purposes of exhibiting forms of men, animals, and particularly dragons, in their periodical displays.

THE DRAGON KITE.—The most noted of all are the dragon kites, many of them over a hundred feet in length, are adapted to sail along majestically, their sinuous or snake-like motions lending an idea of reality to their gorgeously-colored appearance in flight.

ITS CONSTRUCTION.—It is very curiously wrought, and as it must be extremely light, bamboo and rattan are almost wholly used, together with rice paper, in its construction.

Fig. 33 shows one form of the arrangement, in which the bamboo rib, A, in which only two sections are shown, as B, B, form the backbone, and these sections are secured together with pivot pins C. Each section has attached thereto a hoop, or circularly-formed rib, D, the rib passing through the section B, and these ribs are connected together loosely by cords E, which run from one to the other, as shown.

These circular ribs, D, are designed to carry a plurality of light paper disks, F, which are attached at intervals, and they are placed at such angles that they serve as small wing surfaces or aeroplanes to hold the structure in flight.

Fig. 33. Ribs of Dragon Kite

THE MALAY KITE.—The Malay kite, of which Fig. 34 shows the structure, is merely made up of two cross sticks, A, B, the vertical strip, A, being bent and rigid, whereas the cross stick, B, is light and yielding, so that when in flight it will bend, as shown, and as a result it has wonderful stability due to the dihedral angles of the two surfaces. This kite requires no tail to give it stability.

Fig. 34. The Malay Kite.

DIHEDRAL ANGLES.—This is a term to designate a form of disposing of the wings which has been found of great service in the single plane machines. A plane which is disposed at a rising angle, as A, A, Fig. 35, above the horizontal line, is called dihedral, or diedral.

Fig. 35. Dihedral Angle.

This arrangement in monoplanes does away with the necessity of warping the planes, or changing them while in flight. If, however, the angle is too great, the wind from either quarter is liable to raise the side that is exposed.

THE COMMON KITE.—While the Malay kite has only two points of cord attachment, both along the vertical rib, the common kite, as shown in Fig. 36, has a four-point connection, to which the flying cord is attached. Since this form has no dihedral angle, it is necessary to supply a tail, which thus serves to keep it in equilibrium, while in flight.

Fig. 36. Common Kite.

Various modifications have grown out of the Malay kite. One of these forms, designed by Eddy, is exactly like the Malay structure, but instead of having a light flexible cross piece, it is bent to resemble a bow, so that it is rigidly held in a bent position, instead of permitting the wind to give it the dihedral angle.

THE BOW KITE.—Among the different types are the bow kite, Fig. 37, and the sexagonal structure, Fig. 38, the latter form affording an especially large surface.

_Fig. 37. Bow Kite.-

Fig. 38. Hexagonal Kite.

THE BOX KITE.—The most marked improvement in the form of kites was made by Hargreaves, in 1885, and called the box kite. It has wonderful stability, and its use, with certain modifications, in Weather Bureau experiments, have proven its value.

It is made in the form of two boxes, A, B, open at the ends, which are secured together by means of longitudinal bars, C, that extends from one to the other, so that they are held apart a distance, approximately, equal to the length of one of the boxes.

Fig. 39. Hargreave Kite.

Their fore and aft stability is so perfect that the flying cord D is attached at one point only, and the sides of the boxes provide lateral stability to a marked degree.

THE VOISON BIPLANE.—This kind of kite furnished the suggestion for the Voison biplane, which was one of the earlier productions in flying machines.

Fig. 40 shows a perspective of the Voison plane, which has vertical planes A, A, at the ends, and also intermediate curtains B, B. This was found to be remarkably stable, but during its turning movements, or in high winds, was not satisfactory, and for that reason was finally abandoned.

LATERAL STABILITY IN KITES NOT CONCLUSIVE AS TO PLANES.—This is instanced to show that while such a form is admirably adapted for kite purposes, where vertical curtains are always in line with the wind movement, and the structure is held taut by a cord, the lateral effect, when used on a machine which does not at all times move in line with the moving air current. A condition is thus set up which destroys the usefulness of the box kite formation.

Fig. 40. Voison Biplane.

THE SPEAR KITE.—This is a novel kite, with remarkable steadiness and is usually made with the wings on the rear end larger than those on the forward end (Fig. 41), as thereby the cord A can be attached to the spear midway between the two sets of wings.

Fig. 41. Spear Kite.

THE CELLULAR KITE.—Following out the suggestion of the Hargreaves kite, numerous forms embodying the principle of the box structure were made and put on the market before the aeroplane became a reality.

Fig. 42. Cellular Kite.

A structure of this form is illustrated in Fig. 42. Each box, as A, B, has therein a plurality of vertical and horizontal partitions, so that a number of cells are provided, the two cell-like boxes being held apart by a bar C, axially arranged.

This type is remarkably stable, due to the small cells, and kites of this kind are largely used for making scientific experiments.

THE TETRAHEDRAL KITE.—Prof. Bell, inventor of the telephone, gave a great deal of study to kites, which resulted in the tetrahedral formation, as shown in Fig. 43.

Fig. 43. Tetrahedral Kite.

The structure, apparently, is somewhat complicated, but an examination of a single pair of blades, as shown at A, shows that it is built up of triangularly-formed pieces, and that the openings between the pieces are equal to the latter, thereby providing a form of kite which possesses equilibrium to a great degree.

It has never been tried with power, and it is doubtful whether it would be successful as a sustaining surface for flying machines, for the same reasons that caused failure with the box-like formation of the Voison Machine.

THE DELTOID.—The deltoid is the simplest, and the most easily constructed of all the kites. It is usually made from stiff cardboard, A-shaped in outline, as shown in Figs. 44 and 45, and bent along a central line, as at A, forming two wings, each of which is a right-angled triangle.

Fig. 44. and 45. Deltoid Formation.

The peculiarity of this formation is, that it has remarkable stability when used as a kite, with either end foremost. If a small weight is placed at the pointed end, and it is projected through the air, it will fly straight, and is but little affected by cross currents.

THE DUNNE FLYING MACHINE.—A top view of this biplane is shown in Fig. 46. The A-shaped disposition of the planes, gives it good lateral stability, but it has the disadvantage under which all aeroplanes labor, that the entire body of the machine must move on a fore and aft vertical plan in order to ascend or descend.

Fig. 46. The Dunne Bi-plane.

This is a true deltoid formation, as the angle of incidence of the planes is so disposed that when the planes are horizontal from end to end, the inclination is such as to make it similar to the deltoid kite referred to.

ROTATING KITE.—A type of kite unlike the others illustrated is a rotating structure, which gives great stability, due to the gyroscopic action on the supporting surfaces.

Fig. 47 shows a side view with the top in section. The supporting surface is umbrella-shaped. In fact, the ordinary umbrella will answer if not dished too much. An angularly-bent piece of wire A, provided with loops B, B, at the ends, serve as bearings for the handle of the umbrella.

At the bend of the wire loop C, the cord D is attached. The lower side of the umbrella top has cup-shaped pockets E, near the margin, so arranged that their open ends project in the same direction, and the wind catching them rotates the circular plane.

Fig. 47. Rotable Umbrella Kite.

KITE PRINCIPLES.—A careful study of the examples here given, will impress the novice with one important fact, which, in its effect has a more important bearing on successful flight, than all the bird study and speculations concerning its mysteries.

This fact, in essence, is, that the angle of the kite is the great factor in flight next to the power necessary to hold it. Aside from this, the comparison between kites and aeroplanes is of no practical value.

Disregarding the element of momentum, the drift of a machine against a wind, is the same, dynamically, as a plane at rest with the wind moving past it. But there is this pronounced difference: The cord which supports the kite holds it so that the power is in one direction only.

When a side gust of wind strikes the kite it is moved laterally, in sympathy with the kite, hence the problem of lateral displacement is not the same as with the aeroplane.

LATERAL STABILITY IN KITES.—In the latter the power is definitely fixed with relation to the machine itself, and if we should assume that a plane with a power on it sufficient to maintain a flight of 40 miles an hour, should meet a wind moving at the same speed, the machine would be stationary in space.

Such a condition would be the same, so far as the angles of the planes are concerned, with a kite held by a string, but there all similarity in action ends.

The stabilizing quality of the kite may be perfect, as the wind varies from side to side, but the aeroplane, being free, moves to the right or to the left, and does not adjust itself by means of a fixed point, but by a movable one.

SIMILARITY OF FORE AND AFT CONTROL.—Fore and aft, however, the kite and aeroplane act the same. Fig. 48 shows a diagram which illustrates the forces which act on the kite, and by means of which it adjusts its angle automatically.

Let us assume that the kite A is flown from a cord B, so that its angle is 22 1/2 degrees, the wind being 15 miles per hour to maintain the cord B at that angle. When the wind increases to 20 miles an hour there is a correspondingly greater lift against the kite.

Fig. 48. Action of Wind forces on Kite.

As its angle is fixed by means of the loop C, it cannot change its angle with reference to the cord, or independently of it, and its only course is to move up higher and assume the position shown by the figure at D, and the angle of incidence of the kite is therefore changed to 15 degrees, or even to 10 degrees.

In the case of the aeroplane the effect is similar from the standpoint of power and disposition of the planes. If it has sufficient power, and the angle of the planes is not changed, it will ascend; if the planes are changed to 15 degrees to correspond with the kite angle it will remain stationary.

GLIDING FLIGHT.—The earliest attempt to fly by gliding is attributed to Oliver, a Monk of Malmesbury who, in 1065 prepared artificial wings, and with them jumped from a tower, being injured in the experiment.

Nearly 700 years later, in 1801, Resnier, a

Frenchman, conducted experiments with varying

results, followed by Berblinger, in 1842, and

LeBris, a French sailor, in 1856.

In 1884, J. J. Montgomery, of California, designed a successful glider, and in 1889 Otto and Gustav Lilienthal made the most extended tests, in Germany, and became experts in handling gliders.

Pilcher, in England, was the next to take up the subject, and in 1893 made many successful glides, all of the foregoing machines being single plane surfaces, similar to the monoplane.

Long prior to 1896 Octave Chanute, an engineer, gave the subject much study, and in that year made many remarkable flights, developing the double plane, now known as the biplane.

He was an ardent believer in the ability of man to fly by soaring means, and without using power for the purpose.

It is doubtful whether gliders contributed much to the art in the direction of laterally stabilizing aeroplanes. They taught useful lessons with respect to area and fore and aft control.

The kite gave the first impulse to seek out a means for giving equilibrium to planes, and Montgomery made a kite with warping wings as early as 1884.

Penaud, a Frenchman, in 1872, made a model aeroplane which had the stabilizing means in the tail. All these grew out of kite experiments; and all gliders followed the kite construction, or the principles involved in them, so that, really, there is but one intervening step between the kite and the flying machine, as we know it, the latter being merely kites with power attached, as substitutes for the cords.

ONE OF THE USES OF GLIDER EXPERIMENTS.— There is one direction in which gliders are valuable to the boy and to the novice who are interested in aviation. He may spend a lifetime in gliding and not advance in the art. It is questionable whether in a scientific way it will be of any service to him; but experiments of this character give confidence, the ability to quickly grasp a situation, and it will thus teach self reliance in emergencies.

When in a glider quick thinking is necessary. The ability to shift from one position to another; to apply the weight where required instantaneously; to be able during the brief exciting moment of flight to know just what to do, requires alertness.

Some are so wedded to the earth that slight elevation disturbs them. The sensation in a glider while in flight is unlike any other experience. It is like riding a lot of tense springs, and the exhilaration in gliding down the side of a hill, with the feet free and body suspended, is quite different from riding in an aeroplane with power attached.

HINTS IN GLIDING.—It seems to be a difficult matter to give any advice in the art of gliding. It is a feat which seems to necessitate experiment from first to last. During the hundreds of tests personally made, and after witnessing thousands of attempts, there seems to be only a few suggestions or possible directions in which caution might be offered.

First, in respect to the position of the body at the moment of launching. The glider is usually so made that in carrying it, preparatory to making the run and the leap required to glide, it is held so that it balances in the hands.

Now the center of air pressure in gliding may not be at the same point as its sustaining weight when held by the hand, and furthermore, as the arm-pits, by which the body of the experimenter are held while gliding, are not at the same point, but to the rear of the hands, the moment the glider is launched too great a weight is brought to the rear margin of the planes, hence its forward end lifts up.

This condition will soon manifest itself, and be corrected by the experimenter; but there is another difficulty which is not so easy to discover and so quick to remedy, and that is the swing of the legs the moment the operator leaves the ground.

The experimenter learns, after many attempts, that gliding is a matter of a few feet only, and he anticipates landing too soon, and the moment he leaps from the ground the legs are swung forwardly ready to alight.

This is done unconsciously, just as a jumper swings his legs forwardly in the act of alighting. Such a motion naturally disturbs the fore and aft stability of the gliding machine, by tilting up the forward margin, and it banks against the air, instead of gliding.

The constant fear of all gliders is, that the machine will point downwardly, and his motion, as well as the position of the body, tend to shoot it upwardly, instead.