Opening material

Transcriber's note:

In this e-text a-breve is represented by [)a], a-macron by [=a], c-dotted-over by [.c] and e-ogonek by [e,], etc.

Aesc, eth and thorn have been expanded to ae, dh and th.

Page numbers enclosed by curly braces (example: {25}) have been incorporated to facilitate the use of the Notes to the Readings.

AN ANGLO-SAXON PRIMER

With

Grammar, Notes, and Glossary

by

HENRY SWEET, M. A., PH. D., LL. D.

Eighth Edition, Revised

{v}

PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION.

The want of an introduction to the study of Old-English has long been felt. Vernon's _Anglo-Saxon Guide_ was an admirable book for its time, but has long been completely antiquated. I was therefore obliged to make my _Anglo-Saxon Reader_ a somewhat unsatisfactory compromise between an elementary primer and a manual for advanced students, but I always looked forward to producing a strictly elementary book like the present one, which would enable me to give the larger one a more scientific character, and would at the same time serve as an introduction to it. Meanwhile, however, Professor Earle has brought out his _Book for the beginner in Anglo-Saxon_. But this work is quite unsuited to serve as an introduction to my Reader, and will be found to differ so totally in plan and execution from the present one as to preclude all idea of rivalry on my part. We work on lines which instead of clashing can only diverge more and more.

My main principle has been to make the book the easiest possible introduction to the study of Old-English.

Poetry has been excluded, and a selection made from the easiest prose pieces I could find. Old-English original prose is unfortunately limited in extent, and the most suitable pieces (such as the voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan) are already given in the Reader; these I could not give over {vi} again. But I hope the short extracts from the Chronicle and the Martyrdom of King Edmund will be found not wanting in interest. For the rest of the selections I have had to fall back on scriptural extracts, which have the great advantages of simplicity and familiarity of subject. The Gospel extracts have been transferred here from the Reader, where they will be omitted in the next edition. The sentences which head the selections have been gathered mainly from the Gospels, Aelfric's Homilies, and the Chronicle. They are all of the simplest possible character, only those having been taken which would bear isolation from their context. They are intended to serve both as an introduction and as a supplement to the longer pieces. They are grouped roughly into paragraphs, according to the grammatical forms they illustrate. Thus the first paragraph consists mainly of examples of the nominative singular of nouns and adjectives, the second of accusative singulars, and so on.

The spelling has been made rigorously uniform throughout on an early West-Saxon basis. Injurious as normalizing is to the advanced student, it is an absolute necessity for the beginner, who wants to have the definite results of scholarship laid before him, not the confused and fluctuating spellings which he cannot yet interpret intelligently. Even for purely scientific purposes we require a standard of comparison and classification, as in the arrangement of words in a dictionary, where we have to decide, for instance, whether to put the original of _hear_ under _[=e], [=i]e, [=i]_ or _[=y]_. The spelling I here adopt is, in fact, the one I should recommend for dictionary purposes. From early West-Saxon it is an easy step both to late W. S. and to the Mercian forms from which Modern English is derived. That I give Aelfric in a spelling slightly earlier than his date is no more {vii} unreasonable than it is for a classical scholar to print Ausonius (who doubtless spoke Latin with an almost Italian pronunciation) in the same spelling as Virgil.

It is impossible to go into details, but in doubtful or optional cases I have preferred those forms which seemed most instructive to the student. Thus I have preferred keeping up the distinction between the indic. _bundon_ and the subj. _bunden_, although the latter is often levelled under the former even in early MS. In the accentuation I have for the present retained the conventional quantities, which are really 'prehistoric' quantities, as I have shown elsewhere (Phil. Soc. Proc. 1880, 1881). It is no use trying to disguise the fact that Old English philology (owing mainly to its neglect in its native land) is still in an unsettled state.

In the Grammar I have cut down the phonology to the narrowest limits, giving only what is necessary to enable the beginner to trace the connection of forms within the language itself. Derivation and syntax have been treated with the same fulness as the inflections. In my opinion, to give inflections without explaining their use is as absurd as it would be to teach the names of the different parts of a machine without explaining their use, and derivation is as much a fundamental element of a language as inflection. The grammar has been based throughout on the texts, from which all words and sentences given as examples have, as far as possible, been taken. This I consider absolutely essential in an elementary book. What is the use of a grammar which gives a number of forms and rules which the learner has no occasion to apply practically in his reading? Simply to cut down an ordinary grammar and prefix it to a selection of elementary texts, without any attempt to adapt them to one another, is a most unjustifiable proceeding. {viii}

In the Glossary cognate and root words are given only when they occur in the texts, or else are easily recognizable by the ordinary English reader.

All reference to cognate languages has been avoided. Of course, if the beginner knows German, the labour of learning Old English will be lightened for him by one half, but he does not require to have the analogies pointed out to him. The same applies to the relation between Old and Modern English. To trace the history of the sounds would be quite out of place in this book, and postulates a knowledge of the intermediate stages which the beginner cannot have.

The Notes consist chiefly of references to the Grammar, and are intended mainly for those who study without a teacher. As a general rule, no such references are given where the passage itself is quoted in the Grammar.

On the whole I do not think the book could be made much easier without defeating its object. Thus, instead of simply referring the student from _st[e,]nt_ to _standan_, and thence to the Grammar, I might have saved him all this trouble by putting '_st[e,]nt_, 3 sg. pres. of _standan_, stand,' but the result would be in many cases that he would not look at the Grammar at all--surely a most undesirable result.

Although I have given everything that I believe to be _necessary_, every teacher may, of course, at his own discretion add such further illustrations, linguistic, historical, antiquarian, or otherwise, as he thinks likely to instruct or interest his pupils.

My thanks are due to Professor Skeat, not only for constant advice and encouragement in planning and carrying out this work, but also for help in correcting the proofs.

In conclusion I may be allowed to express a hope that this little book may prove useful not only to young beginners, but also to some of our Professors of and {ix} Examiners in the English language, most of whom are now beginning to see the importance of a sound elementary knowledge of 'Anglo-Saxon'--a knowledge which I believe this book to be capable of imparting, if studied diligently, and not hurriedly cast aside for a more ambitious one.

HENRY SWEET.

HEATH STREET, HAMPSTEAD, _March 31, 1882_.

PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION.

In the present edition I have put this book into what must be (for some time at least) its permanent form, making such additions and alterations as seemed necessary.

If I had any opportunity of teaching the language, I should no doubt have been able to introduce many other improvements; as it is, I have had to rely mainly on the suggestions and corrections kindly sent to me by various teachers and students who have used this book, among whom my especial thanks are due to the Rev. W. F. Moulton, of Cambridge, and Mr. C. Stoffel, of Amsterdam.

HENRY SWEET.

LONDON, _October 15, 1884_.

{x}

CONTENTS.

Page

GRAMMAR 1

TEXTS 55

NOTES 91

GLOSSARY 97

{1}

GRAMMAR.

The oldest stage of English before the Norman Conquest is called 'Old English,' which name will be used throughout in this Book, although the name 'Anglo-Saxon' is still often used.

There were several dialects of Old English. This book deals only with the _West-Saxon_ dialect in its earliest form.

SOUNDS.

VOWELS.

The vowel-letters in Old English had nearly the same values as in Latin. Long vowels were occasionally marked by ('), short vowels being left unmarked. In this book long vowels are marked by (-). The following are the elementary vowels and diphthongs, with examples, and key-words from English, French (F.), and German (G.):--

a _as in_ mann (G.) nama (_name_). [=a] " father st[=a]n (_stone_). ae " man glaed (_glad_). [=ae] " d[=ae]d (_deed_)[1]. e " ete (F.) ic ete[2] (_I eat_). [=e] " see (G.) h[=e] (_he_). [e,] " men m[e,]nn (_men_). {2} i " fini (F.) cwic (_alive_). [=i] " sieh (G.) w[=i]n (_wine_). ie " fin ieldran (_ancestors_). [=i]e " h[=i]eran (_hear_). o " beau (F.) god (_god_). [=o] " so (G.) g[=o]d (_good_). u " sou (F.) sunu (_son_). [=u] " gut (G.) n[=u] (_now_). y " vec_u_ (F.) synn (_sin_). [=y] " gruen (G.) br[=y]d (_bride_). ea = ae + a eall (_all_). [=e]a = [=ae] + a [=e]ast (_east_). eo = e + o weorc (_work_). [=e]o = [=e] + o d[=e]op (_deep_). _e_ and _[e,]_ are both written e in the MSS.

The diphthongs are pronounced with the stress on the first element.

Those who find a difficulty in learning strange vowel-sounds may adopt the following approximate pronunciation:--

a as in ask (short) nama (n[)a]hm[)a]h). [=a] " father st[=a]n (stahn). ae " man glaed (glad). [=ae] " there [=ae]r (air). e, [e,] " men ete (etty), m[e,]nn (men). [=e] " they h[=e] (hay). i, ie " fin cwic (quick), ieldran (ildr[)a]hn). [=i], [=i]e " see w[=i]n (ween), h[=i]eran (heer[)a]hn). o " not god (god). [=o] " note g[=o]d (goad). u " full full (full). [=u] " fool n[=u] (noo). y " fin synn (zin). [=y] " see br[=y]d (breed). ea = [)e]-[)a]h eall ([)e]-[)a]hl). [=e]a = ai-[)a]h [=e]ast (ai-[)a]hst). {3} eo = [)e]-o weorc (w[)e]-ork). [=e]o = ai-o d[=e]op (dai-op).

The pronunciation given in parentheses is the nearest that can be expressed in English letters as pronounced in Southern English.

CONSONANTS.

Double consonants must be pronounced double, or long, as in Italian. Thus _sunu_ (son) must be distinguished from _sunne_ (sun) in the same way as _penny_ is distinguished from _penknife_. So also _in_ (in) must be distinguished from _inn_ (house); noting that in modern English final consonants in accented monosyllables after a short vowel are long, our _in_ and _inn_ both having the pronunciation of Old English _inn_, not of O. E. _in_.

_c_ and _g_ had each a _back_ (guttural) and a _front_ (palatal) pron., which latter is in this book written _[.c]_, _[.g]_.

c = _k_, as in _c[=e]ne_ (bold), _cn[=a]wan_ (know).

[.c] = _kj_, a _k_ formed in the _j_ (English _y_) position, nearly as in the old-fashioned pron. of _sky_: _[.c]iri[.c]e_ (church), _sty[.c][.c]e_ (piece), _th[e,]n[.c]an_ (think).

g initially and in the combination _ng_ was pron. as in 'get': _g[=o]d_ (good), _lang_ (long); otherwise (that is, medially and finally after vowels and _l, r_) as in German _sagen: dagas_ (days), _burg_ (city), _h[=a]lga_ (saint).

[.g] initially and in the combination _n[.g]_ was pronounced _gj_ (corresponding to _kj_): _[.g][=e]_ (ye), _[.g]eorn_ (willing), _spr[e,]n[.g]an_ (scatter); otherwise = _j_ (as in 'you'): _dae[.g]_ (day), _wr[=e][.g]an_ (accuse), _h[e,]r[.g]ian_ (ravage). It is possible that _[.g]_ in _[.g]e-boren_ (born) and other unaccented syllables was already pronounced _j. [.c][.g] = [.g][.g]: s[e,][.c][.g]an_ (say), _hry[.c][.g]_ (back).

f had the sound of _v_ everywhere where it was possible:--_faran_ (go), _of_ (of), _ofer_ (over); not, of course, in _oft_ (often), or when doubled, as in _offrian_ (offer). {4}

h initially, as in _h[=e]_ (he), had the same sound as now. Everywhere else it had that of Scotch and German _ch_ in _loch_:--_h[=e]ah_ (high), _Wealh_ (Welshman), _riht_ (right). _hw_, as in _hwaet_ (what), _hw[=i]l_ (while), had the sound of our _wh_; and _hl, hn, hr_ differed from _l, n, r_ respectively precisely as _wh_ differs from _w_, that is, they were these consonants devocalized, _hl_ being nearly the same as Welsh _ll:--hl[=a]ford_ (lord), _hl[=u]d_ (loud); _hnappian_ (doze), _hnutu_ (nut); _hrathe_ (quickly), _hr[=e]od_ (reed).

r was always a strong trill, as in Scotch:--_r[=ae]ran_ (to raise), _h[=e]r_ (here), _word_ (word).

s had the sound of _z_:--_s[=e][.c]an_ (seek), _sw[=a]_ (so), _w[=i]s_ (wise), _[=a].r[=i]san_ (rise); not, of course, in combination with hard consonants, as in _st[=a]n_ (stone), _faest_ (firm), _r[=i][.c]sian_ (rule), or when double, as in _cyssan_ (kiss).

th had the sound of our _th_ (= dh) in _then_:_--th[=u]_ (thou), _thing_ (thing), _s[=o]th_ (true), _h[=ae]then_ (heathen); except when in combination with hard consonants, where it had that of our _th_ in _thin_, as in _s[=e][.c]th_ (seeks). Note _haefth_ (has) = _haevdh_.

w was fully pronounced wherever written:--_wr[=i]tan_ (write), _n[=i]we_ (new), _s[=e]ow_ (sowed _pret._).

STRESS.

The stress or accent is marked throughout in this book, whenever it is not on the first syllable of a word, by (.) preceding the letter on which the stress begins. Thus _for.[.g]iefan_ is pronounced with the same stress as that of _forgive_, _andswaru_ with that of _answer_.

* * * * *

PHONOLOGY.

VOWELS.

Different vowels are related to one another in various ways in O. E., the most important of which are _mutation_ (German _umlaut_) and _gradation_ (G. _ablaut_). {5}

The following changes are _mutations_:--

a .. [e,]:--mann, _pl._ m[e,]nn; wand (wound _prt._), w[e,]ndan (to turn).

ea (= a) .. ie (= [e,]):--eald (old), ieldra (older); feallan (fall), fielth (falls).

[=a] .. [=ae]:--bl[=a]wan (to blow), bl[=ae]wth (bloweth); h[=a]l (sound), h[=ae]lan (heal).

u .. y:--burg (city), _pl._ byri[.g]; trum (strong), trymman (to strengthen).

o .. y:--gold, gylden (golden); coss (a kiss), cyssan (to kiss).

e .. i:--beran (to bear), bireth (beareth); cwethan (speak), cwide (speech).

eo (= e) .. ie (= i):--heord (herd), hierde (shepherd); [.c]eorfan (cut), [.c]ierfth (cuts).

u .. o:--curon (they chose), [.g]e.coren (chosen).

[=u] .. [=y]:--c[=u]th (known), c[=y]than (to make known); f[=u]l (foul), [=a].f[=y]lan (defile).

[=o] .. [=e]:--s[=o]hte (sought _prt._), s[=e][.c]an (to seek); f[=o]da (food), f[=e]dan (to feed).

[=e]a .. [=i]e:--h[=e]awan (to hew), h[=i]ewth (hews); t[=e]am (progeny), t[=i]eman (teem).

[=e]o .. [=i]e:--st[=e]or (rudder), st[=i]eran (steer); [.g]e.str[=e]on (possession), [.g]es.tr[=i]enan (gain).

Before proceeding to gradation, it will be desirable to describe the other most important vowel-relations.

a, ae, ea. In O. E. original _a_ is preserved before nasals, as in _mann_, _lang_, _nama_ (name), and before a single consonant followed by _a_, _u_, or _o_, as in _dagas_ (days), _dagum_ (to days), _faran_ (go), _gafol_ (profit), and in some words when _e_ follows, as in _ic fare_ (I go), _faren_ (gone). Before _r_, _l_, _h_ followed by another consonant, and before _x_ it becomes _ea_, as in _heard_ (hard), _eall_ (all), _eald_ (old), _eahta_ (eight), _weaxan_ (to grow). Not in _baerst_ (p. 7). In most other cases it becomes _ae_:--_dae[.g]_, (day), _dae[.g]es_ (of a day), _faest_ (firm), _waer_ (wary). {6}

e before nasals always becomes _i_: compare _bindan_ (to bind), pret. _band_, with _beran_ (to bear), pret. _baer_.

_e_ before _r_ (generally followed by a consonant) becomes _eo:--eorthe_ (earth), _heorte_ (heart). Not in _berstan_ (p. 7). Also in other cases:--_seolfor_ (silver), _heofon_ (heaven).

i before _r_ + cons. becomes _ie:--bierth_ (beareth) contr. from _bireth, hierde_ (shepherd) from _heord_ (herd), _wiersa_ (worse).

[e,] before _r_, or _l_ + cons. often becomes _ie:--fierd_ (army) from _faran_, _bieldo_ (boldness) from _beald_, _ieldra_ (elder) from _eald_.

By _gradation_ the vowels are related as follows:--

e (i, eo) .. a (ae, ea) .. u (o):--

_bindan_ (inf.), _band_ (pret.), _bundon_ (they bound). _beran_ (inf.), _baer_ (pret.), _boren_ (past partic.). _[.c]eorfan_ (cut), _[.c]earf_ (pret.), _curfon_ (they cut), _corfen_ (past partic.). _b[e,]nd_ (bond) = mutation of band, _byr-then_ (burden) of _bor-en_.

a (ae, ea) .. [=ae]:--_spraec_ (spoke), _spr[=ae]con_ (they spoke), _spr[=ae][.c]_ (speech).

a .. [=o]:--_faran_ (to go), _f[=o]r_ (pret.), _f[=o]r_ (journey). _[.g]e.f[=e]ra_ (companion) mutation of _f[=o]r_.

[=i] .. [=a] .. i:--_wr[=i]tan, wr[=a]t, writon, [.g]e.writ_ (writing, _subst._). _(be).l[=i]fan_ (remain), _l[=a]f_ (remains), whence by mutation _l[=ae]fan_ (leave).

[=e]o ([=u]) .. [=e]a .. u (o):--_[.c][=e]osan_ (choose), _[.c][=e]as, curon, coren_. _cys-t_ (choice). _(for).l[=e]osan_ (lose), _l[=e]as_ (loose), _[=a].l[=i]esan_ (release), _losian_ (to be lost). _b[=u]gan_ (bend), _boga_ (bow).

We see that the laws of gradation are most clearly shown in the conjugation of the strong verbs. But they run through the whole language, and a knowledge of the laws of gradation and mutation is the main key to O. E. etymology.

It is often necessary to supply intermediate stages in connecting two words. Thus _l[e,][.c][.g]an_ (lay) cannot be directly referred to _li[.c][.g]an_ (lie), but only to a form *_lag_-, preserved in the preterite _lae[.g]_. So also _bl[e,]ndan_ (to blind) can be referred only indirectly to the adjective _blind_ through an intermediate *_bland_-. Again, the root-vowel of _byrthen_ {7} (burden) cannot be explained by the infinitive _beran_ (bear), but only by the past participle _[.g]e.boren_. In the same way _hryre_ (fall _sb._) must be referred, not to the infinitive _hr[=e]osan_, but to the preterite plural _hruron_.

The vowel-changes in the preterites of verbs of the 'fall'-conjugation (1) _feallan_, _f[=e]oll_, &c., are due not to gradation, but to other causes.

CONSONANTS.

s becomes _r_ in the preterite plurals and past participles of strong verbs, as in _curon_, _[.g]e.coren_ from _[.c][=e]osan_, _w[=ae]ron_ pl. of _waes_ (was), and in other formations, such as _hryre_ (fall) from _hr[=e]osan_.

th becomes _d_ under the same conditions, as in _wurdon_, _[.g]e.worden_ from _weorthan_ (become), _cwaeth_ (quoth), pl. _cw[=ae]don_, _cwide_ (speech) from _cwethan_ (infin.).

r is often transposed, as in _iernan_ (run) from original *_rinnan_ (cp. the subst. _ryne_), _berstan_ (burst) from *_brestan_, _baerst_ (burst _pret._) from _braest_, _hors_ (horse) from *_hross_.

The combinations cae-, gae- become _[.c]ea-_, _[.g]ea-_, as in _[.c]eaf_ (chaff) from *_caef_, _s[.c]eal_ (shall) from *_scael_, _[.g]eaf_ (gave) = *_gaef_ from _[.g]iefan_ (cp. _cwaeth_ from _cwethan_), _[.g]eat_ (gate)--cp. _faet_ (vessel).

g[=ae]- often becomes _[.g][=e]a-_, as in _[.g][=e]afon_ (they gave), with which compare _cw[=ae]don_ (they said).

ge- becomes _[.g]ie_, as in _[.g]iefan_, _[.g]ieldan_ (pay) from *_gefan_, *_geldan_--cp. _cwethan_, _delfan_. Not in the prefix _[.g]e-_ and _[.g][=e]_ (ye).

When g comes before a consonant in inflection, it often becomes _h_, as in _h[=e] l[=i]ehth_ (he lies) from _l[=e]ogan_ (mentiri).

h after a consonant is dropt when a vowel follows, the preceding vowel being lengthened, thus _Wealh_ (Welshman) has plural _W[=e]alas_.

* * * * *

INFLECTIONS.

NOUNS.

Gender. There are three genders in O. E.--masculine, neuter, and feminine. The gender is partly natural, partly {8} grammatical. By the natural gender names of male beings, such as _se mann_ (the man), are masculine; of female beings, such as _s[=e]o dohtor_ (the daughter), are feminine; and of young creatures, such as _thaet [.c]ild_ (the child), neuter. Note, however, that _thaet w[=i]f_ (woman) is neuter.

Grammatical gender is known only by the gender of the article and other words connected with the noun, and, to some extent, by its form. Thus all nouns ending in _-a_, such as _se m[=o]na_ (moon), are masculine, _s[=e]o sunne_ (sun) being feminine. Those ending in _-d[=o]m_, _-h[=a]d_, and _-s[.c]ipe_ are also masculine:--_se w[=i]sd[=o]m_ (wisdom), _se [.c]ildh[=a]d_ (childhood), _se fr[=e]onds[.c]ipe_ (friendship). Those in _-nes_, _-o_ (from adjectives) _-r[=ae]den_, and _-ung_ are feminine:--_s[=e]o rihtw[=i]snes_ (righteousness), _s[=e]o bieldo_ (boldness) from _beald_, _s[=e]o mann-r[=ae]den_ (allegiance), _s[=e]o scotung_ (shooting).

Compounds follow the gender of their last element, as in _thaet burg-[.g]eat_ (city-gate), from _s[=e]o burg_ and _thaet [.g]eat_. Hence also _se w[=i]f-mann_ (woman) is masculine.

The gender of most words can be learnt only by practice, and the student should learn each noun with its proper definite article.

Strong and Weak. Weak nouns are those which form their inflections with _n_, such as _se m[=o]na_, plural _m[=o]nan_; _s[=e]o sunne_, genitive sing. _th[=ae]re sunnan_. All the others, such as _se dae[.g]_, pl. _dagas_, _thaet h[=u]s_ (house), gen. sing. _thaes h[=u]ses_, are strong.

Cases. There are four cases, nominative, accusative, dative, and genitive. The acc. is the same as the nom. in all plurals, in the sing. of all neuter nouns, and of all strong masculines. Masculine and neuter nouns never differ in the plural except in the nom. and acc., and in the singular they differ only in the acc. of weak nouns, which in neuters is the same as the nom. The dative plural of nearly all nouns ends in _-um_. {9}

STRONG MASCULINES.

(1) as-plurals.

SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom[3]._ st[=a]n (_stone_). _Nom._ st[=a]n-as. _Dat._ st[=a]n-e. _Dat._ st[=a]n-um. _Gen._ st[=a]n-es. _Gen._ st[=a]n-a.

So also _d[=ae]l_ (part), _cyning_ (king), _[.c]ildh[=a]d_ (childhood).

_dae[.g]_ (day) changes its vowel in the pl. (p. 5):--_dae[.g]_, _dae[.g]e_, _dae[.g]es_; _dagas_, _dagum_, _daga_.

Nouns in _-e_ have nom. and dat. sing. the same:--_[e,]nde_, (end), _[e,]nde_, _[e,]ndes_; _[e,]ndas_, _[e,]ndum_, _[e,]nda_.

Nouns in _-el_, _-ol_, _-um_, _-en_, _-on_, _-er_, _-or_ often contract:--_[e,]n[.g]el_ (angel), _[e,]n[.g]le_, _[e,]n[.g]les_; _[e,]n[.g]las_, _[e,]n[.g]lum_, _[e,]n[.g]la_. So also _nae[.g]el_ (nail), _the[.g]en_ (thane), _ealdor_ (prince). Others, such as _aecer_ (field), do not contract.

_h_ after a consonant is dropped in inflection (p. 7), as in _feorh_ (life), _f[=e]ore_, _f[=e]ores_. So also in _Wealh_ (Welshman), plur. _W[=e]alas_.

There are other classes which are represented only by a few nouns each.

(2) e-plurals.

A few nouns which occur only in the plur.:--_l[=e]ode_ (people), _l[=e]odum_, _l[=e]oda_. So also several names of nations:--_[E,]n[.g]le_ (English), _D[e,]ne_ (Danes); _Seaxe_ (Saxons), _Mier[.c]e_ (Mercians), have gen. plur. _Seaxna_, _Mier[.c]na_.

(3) Mutation-plurals.

SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ f[=o]t (_foot_). _Nom._ f[=e]t. _Dat._ f[=e]t. _Dat._ f[=o]t-um. _Gen._ f[=o]t-es. _Gen._ f[=o]t-a.

So also _t[=o]th_ (tooth). _Mann_ (man), _m[e,]nn_, _mannes_; _m[e,]nn_, _mannum_, _manna_.

{10}

(4) u-nouns.

SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ sun-u (_son_). _Nom._ sun-a. _Dat._ sun-a. _Dat._ sun-um. _Gen._ sun-a. _Gen._ sun-a.

So also _wudu_ (wood).

(5) r-nouns (including feminines).

SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ m[=o]dor (_mother_). _Nom._ m[=o]dor. _Dat._ m[=e]der. _Dat._ m[=o]dr-um. _Gen._ m[=o]dor. _Gen._ m[=o]dr-a.

So also _br[=o]thor_ (brother); _faeder_ (father), _dohtor_ (daughter), have dat. sing. _faeder_, _dehter_.

(6) nd-nouns.

Formed from the present participle of verbs.

SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ fr[=e]ond (_friend_). _Nom._ fr[=i]end. _Dat._ fr[=i]end. _Dat._ fr[=e]ond-um. _Gen._ fr[=e]ond-es. _Gen._ fr[=e]ond-a.

So also _f[=e]ond_ (enemy).

Those in _-end_ inflect thus:--_b[=u]end_ (dweller), _b[=u]end_, _b[=u]endes_; _b[=u]end_, _b[=u]endum_, _b[=u]endra_. So also _H[=ae]lend_ (saviour). The _-ra_ is an adjectival inflection.

STRONG NEUTERS.

(1) u-plurals.

SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ s[.c]ip (_ship_). _Nom._ s[.c]ip-u. _Dat._ s[.c]ip-e. _Dat._ s[.c]ip-um. _Gen._ s[.c]ip-es. _Gen._ s[.c]ip-a.

So all neuters with short final syllable, such as _[.g]e.bed_ (prayer), _[.g]e.writ_ (writing), _[.g]eat_ (gate). {11}

_Faet_ (vessel), _faete_, _faetes_; _fatu_, _fatum_, _fata_ (p. 5).

_R[=i][.c]e_ (kingdom), _r[=i][.c]e_, _r[=i][.c]es_; _r[=i][.c]u_, _r[=i][.c]um_, _r[=i][.c]a_. So also all neuters in _e_, except _[=e]age_ and _[=e]are_ (p. 13): _[.g]e.th[=e]ode_ (language), _sty[.c][.c]e_ (piece).

Those in _-ol_, _-en_, _-or_, &c. are generally contracted:--_d[=e]ofol_ (devil), _d[=e]ofles_, _d[=e]oflu_. So also _w[=ae]pen_ (weapon), _mynster_ (monastery), _wundor_ (wonder).

(2) Unchanged plurals.

SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ h[=u]s (_house_). _Nom._ h[=u]s. _Dat._ h[=u]s-e. _Dat._ h[=u]s-um. _Gen._ h[=u]s-es. _Gen._ h[=u]s-a.

So all others with long final syllables (that is, containing a long vowel, or a short vowel followed by more than one consonant), such as _bearn_ (child), _folc_ (nation), _w[=i]f_ (woman).

_Feoh_ (money) drops its _h_ in inflection and lengthens the _eo_:--_feoh_, _f[=e]o_, _f[=e]os_. So also _bleoh_ (colour).

STRONG FEMININES.

(1) a-plurals.

SINGULAR. PLURAL. (a) _Nom._ [.g]ief-u (_gift_). _Nom._ [.g]ief-a. _Acc._ [.g]ief-e. _Acc._ [.g]ief-a. _Dat._ [.g]ief-e. _Dat._ [.g]ief-um. _Gen._ [.g]ief-e. _Gen._ [.g]ief-ena.

So also _lufu_ (love), _scamu_ (shame). _Duru_ (door) is an _u_-noun: it has acc. _duru_, d., g. _dura_, g. pl. _dura_. Observe that all these nouns have a short syllable before the final vowel. When it is long, the _u_ is dropped, and the noun falls under (_b_). {12}

SINGULAR. PLURAL. (_b_) _Nom._ spr[=ae][.c] (_speech_). _Nom._ spr[=ae][.c]-a. _Acc._ spr[=ae][.c]-e. _Acc._ spr[=ae][.c]-a. _Dat._ spr[=ae][.c]-e. _Dat._ spr[=ae][.c]-um. _Gen._ spr[=ae][.c]-e. _Gen._ spr[=ae][.c]-a.

So also _str[=ae]t_ (street), _sorg_ (sorrow). Some have the acc. sing. the same as the nom., such as _d[=ae]d_, _hand_, _miht_.

Those in _-ol_, _-er_, _-or_, &c. contract:--_s[=a]wol_ (soul), _s[=a]wle_, _s[=a]wla_, _s[=a]wlum_. So also _[.c]easter_ (city), _hl[=ae]dder_ (ladder).

Some in _-en_ double the _n_ in inflection:--_byrthen_ (burden), _byrthenne_. So also those in _-r[=ae]den_, such as _hierdr[=ae]den_ (guardianship). Those in _-nes_ also double the _s_ in inflection: _g[=o]dnes_ (goodness), _g[=o]dnesse_.

(2) Mutation-plurals.

SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ b[=o]c (_book_). _Nom._ b[=e][.c]. _Dat._ b[=e][.c]. _Dat._ b[=o]c-um. _Gen._ b[=e][.c]. _Gen._ b[=o]c-a.

_Burg_ (city), _byri[.g]_, _burge_; _byri[.g]_, _burgum_, _burga_.

(3) Indeclinable.

SINGULAR. _Nom._ bieldo (_boldness_). _Dat._ bieldo. _Gen._ bieldo.

So also _ieldo_ (age).

For _r_-nouns, see under Masculines.

WEAK MASCULINES.

SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ nam-a (_name_). _Nom._ nam-an. _Acc._ nam-an. _Acc._ nam-an. _Dat._ nam-an. _Dat._ nam-um. _Gen._ nam-an. _Gen._ nam-ena.

{13}

So also all nouns in _-a_:--_[.g]e.f[=e]ra_ (companion), _guma_ (man), _[.g]e.l[=e]afa_ (belief). _Ieldran_ (elders) occurs only in the plural.

_[. G]e.f[=e]a_ (joy) is contracted throughout:--_[.g]ef[=e]a_, _[.g]ef[=e]an_.

WEAK NEUTERS.

SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ [=e]ag-e (_eye_). _Nom._ [=e]ag-an. _Acc._ [=e]ag-e. _Acc._ [=e]ag-an. _Dat._ [=e]ag-an. _Dat._ [=e]ag-um. _Gen._ [=e]ag-an. _Gen._ [=e]ag-ena.

So also _[=e]are_ 'ear.'

WEAK FEMININES.

SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ sunn-e (_sun_). _Nom._ sunn-an. _Acc._ sunn-an. _Acc._ sunn-an. _Dat._ sunn-an. _Dat._ sunn-um. _Gen._ sunn-an. _Gen._ sunn-ena.

So also _[.c]iri[.c]e_ (church), _f[=ae]mne_ (virgin), _heorte_ (heart).

_L[=e]o_ (lion) has acc., &c. _l[=e]on_.

PROPER NAMES.

Native names of persons are declined like other nouns:--_Aelfred_, gen. _Aelfredes_, dat. _Aelfrede_; _[=E]ad-burg_ (fem.), gen. _[=E]adburge_, &c.

Foreign names of persons sometimes follow the analogy of native names, thus _Cr[=i]st_, _Salomon_ have gen. _Cr[=i]stes_, _Salomones_, dat. _Cr[=i]ste_, _Salomone_. Sometimes they are declined as in Latin, especially those in _-us_, but often with a mixture of English endings, and the Latin endings are used {14} somewhat loosely, the accus. ending being often extended to the other oblique cases; thus we find nom. _C[=y]rus_, gen. _C[=y]res_, acc. _C[=y]rum_, dat. _C[=y]rum_ (th[=ae]m cyninge C[=y]rum).

Almost the only names of countries and districts in Old English are those taken from Latin, such as _Breten_ (Britain), _C[e,]nt_ (Kent), _[. G]erm[=a]nia_ (Germany), and those formed by composition, generally with _land_, such as _[E,]n[.g]la-land_ (land of the English, England), _Isr.ah[=e]la-th[=e]od_ (Israel). In both of these cases the first element is in the gen. pl., but ordinary compounds, such as _Scot-land_, also occur. In other cases the name of the inhabitants of a country is used for the country itself:--_on [=E]ast-[e,]n[.g]lum_ = in East-anglia, lit. 'among the East-anglians.' So also _on Angel-cynne_ = in England, lit. 'among the English race,' more accurately expressed by _Angelcynnes land_.

Uncompounded names of countries are sometimes undeclined. Thus we find _on C[e,]nt_, _t[=o] Hierusal[=e]m_.

_[. G]erm[=a]nia_, _Asia_, and other foreign names in _-a_ take _-e_ in the oblique cases, thus gen. _[. G]erm[=a]nie_.

* * * * *

ADJECTIVES.

Adjectives have three genders, and the same cases as nouns, though with partly different endings, together with strong and weak inflection. In the masc. and neut. sing. they have an _instrumental_ case, for which in the fem. and plur., and in the weak inflection the dative is used.

STRONG ADJECTIVES.

Adjectives with a short syllable before the endings take _-u_ in the fem. sing. nom. and neut. pl. nom., those with a long one drop it. {15}

SINGULAR. Masc. Neut. Fem. (_a_) _Nom._ cwic (_alive_), cwic, cwic-u. _Acc._ cwic-ne, cwic, cwic-e. _Dat._ cwic-um, cwic-um, cwic-re. _Gen._ cwic-es, cwic-es, cwic-re. _Instr._ cwic-e, cwic-e. (cwicre).

PLURAL. _Nom._ cwic-e, cwic-u, cwic-e. \____________________ ______________/ \/ _Dat._ cwic-um. _Gen._ cwic-ra.

So also _sum_ (some), _f[=ae]rlic_ (dangerous).

Those with _ae_, such as _glaed_ (glad), change it to _a_ in dat. _gladum_, &c.

Those in _-e_, such as _bl[=i]the_ (glad), drop it in all inflections:--_bl[=i]thne_, _bl[=i]thu_, _bl[=i]thre_.

Those in _-ig_, _-el_, _-ol_, _-en_, _-er_, _-or_ often contract before inflections beginning with a vowel, as in _h[=a]li[.g]_ (holy), _h[=a]lges_, _h[=a]lgum_; _mi[.c]el_ (great), _mi[.c]lu_, _mi[.c]le_. Not, of course, before consonants:--_h[=a]li[.g]ne_, _mi[.c]elne_, _mi[.c]elra_.

Those in _-u_, such as _[.g]earu_ (ready), change the _u_ into a _w_ before vowels:--_[.g]earwes_, _[.g]earwe_.

Adjectives with long syllable before the endings drop the _u_ of the fem. and neuter:--

Masc. Neut. Fem. (_b_) _Nom. Sing._ g[=o]d (_good_), g[=o]d, g[=o]d. _Plur._ g[=o]de, g[=o]d, g[=o]de.

_F[=e]a_ (few) has only the plural inflections, dat. _f[=e]am_, gen. _f[=e]ara_.

_H[=e]ah_ (high) drops its second _h_ in inflection and contracts:--_h[=e]are_, nom. pl. _h[=e]a_, dat. _h[=e]am_, acc. sing. masc. _h[=e]anne_.

_Fela_ (many) is indeclinable. {16}

WEAK ADJECTIVES.

The weak inflections of adjectives agree exactly with the noun ones:-

SINGULAR. Masc. Neut. Fem. _Nom._ g[=o]d-a, g[=o]d-e, g[=o]d-e. _Acc._ g[=o]d-an, g[=o]d-e, g[=o]d-an. _Dat._ g[=o]d-an, g[=o]d-an, g[=o]d-an. _Gen._ g[=o]d-an, g[=o]d-an, g[=o]d-an. \________________ __________________/ \/ PLURAL. _Nom._ g[=o]d-an. _Dat._ g[=o]d-um. _Gen._ g[=o]d-ra.

The vowel- and consonant-changes are as in the strong declension.

COMPARISON.

The comparative is formed by adding _-ra_, and is declined like a weak adjective:--_l[=e]of_ (dear), _l[=e]ofra_ masc., _l[=e]ofre_ fem., _l[=e]ofran_ plur., etc.; _m[=ae]re_ (famous), _m[=ae]rra_. The superlative is formed by adding _-ost_, and may be either weak or strong:--_l[=e]ofost_ (dearest).

The following form their comparisons with mutation, with superlative in _-est_ (the forms in parentheses are adverbs):--

eald (_old_), ieldra, ieldest. lang (_long_), l[e,]n[.g]ra, l[e,]n[.g]est. n[=e]ah (_near_), (n[=e]ar), n[=i]ehst. h[=e]ah (_high_), h[=i]erra, h[=i]ehst.

The following show different roots:--

g[=o]d (_good_), b[e,]tera, b[e,]tst. yfel (_evil_), wiersa, wierrest. mi[.c]el (_great_), m[=a]ra (m[=a]), m[=ae]st. l[=y]tel (_little_), l[=ae]ssa (l[=ae]s), l[=ae]st.

{17}

The following are defective as well as irregular, being formed from adverbs:--

[=ae]r (_formerly_), [=ae]rra ([=ae]ror), [=ae]rest. fore (_before_), . . . forma, fyrmest. [=u]t (_out_), [=y]terra, [=y]temest.

NUMERALS.

CARDINAL. ORDINAL. [=a]n, _one_. forma (_first_). tw[=a], _two_. [=o]ther. thr[=e]o, _three_. thridda. f[=e]ower, _four_. f[=e]ortha. f[=i]f, _five_. f[=i]f-ta. siex, _six_. siex-ta. seofon, _seven_. seofotha. eahta, _eight_. eahtotha. nigon, _nine_. nigotha. t[=i]en, _ten_. t[=e]otha. [e,]ndlufon, _eleven_. [e,]ndlyf-ta. tw[e,]lf, _twelve_. tw[=e,]lf-ta. thr[=e]o-t[=i]ene, _thirteen_. thr[=e]o-t[=e]otha. f[=e]ower-t[=i]ene, _fourteen_. f[=i]f-t[=i]ene, _fifteen_. siex-t[=i]ene, _sixteen_. seofon-t[=i]ene, _seventeen_. eahta-t[=i]ene, _eighteen_. nigon-t[=i]ene, _nineteen_. tw[e,]n-ti[.g], _twenty_. thri-ti[.g], _thirty_. f[=e]ower-ti[.g], _forty_. f[=i]f-ti[.g], _fifty_. siex-ti[.g], _sixty_. {18} hund-.seofon-ti[.g], _seventy_. hund-.eahta-ti[.g], _eighty_. hund-.nigon-ti[.g], _ninety_. hund } _hundred_. hund-.t[=e]onti[.g], } hund-.[e,]ndlufonti[.g], _hundred and ten_. hund-.tw[e,]lfti[.g], _hundred and twenty_. th[=u]send, _thousand_.

_[=A]n_ is declined like other adjectives.

_Tw[=a]_ is declined thus:--

Masc. Neut. Fem. _Nom._ tw[=e][.g]en, tw[=a], tw[=a]. \__________________ ___________________/ \/ _Dat._ tw[=ae]m. _Gen._ tw[=e][.g]ra.

So also _b[=e][.g]en_ (both), _b[=a]_, _b[=ae]m_, _b[=e][.g]ra_.

_Thr[=e]o_ is declined thus:--

Masc. Neut. Fem. _Nom._ thr[=i]e, thr[=e]o, thr[=e]o. \_____________ _______________/ \/ _Dat._ thrim. _Gen._ thr[=e]ora.

The others up to _tw[e,]nti[.g]_ are generally indeclinable. Those in _-ti[.g]_ are sometimes declined like neuter nouns, sometimes like adjectives, and are often left undeclined. When not made into adjectives they govern the genitive.

_Hund_ and _th[=u]send_ are either declined as neuters or left undeclined, always taking a genitive:--_eahta hund m[=i]la_ (eight hundred miles), _f[=e]ower th[=u]send wera_ (four thousand men).

Units are always put before tens:--_[=a]n and tw[e,]nti[.g]_ (twenty-one). {19}

The ordinals are always weak, except _[=o]ther_, which is always strong.

* * * * *

PRONOUNS.

PERSONAL.

SINGULAR. _Nom._ i[.c] (_I_), th[=u] (_thou_). _Acc._ m[=e], th[=e]. _Dat._ m[=e], th[=e]. _Gen._ m[=i]n, th[=i]n.

DUAL. _Nom._ wit (_we two_), [.g]it (_ye two_). _Acc._ unc, inc. _Dat._ unc, inc. _Gen._ uncer, incer.

PLURAL. _Nom._ w[=e] (_we_), [.g][=e] (_ye_). _Acc._ [=u]s, [=e]ow. _Dat._ [=u]s, [=e]ow. _Gen._ [=u]re, [=e]ower.

SINGULAR. Masc. Neut. Fem. _Nom._ h[=e] (_he_), hit (_it_), h[=e]o (_she_). _Acc._ hine, hit, h[=i]e. _Dat._ him, him, hiere. _Gen._ his, his, hiere. \_________________ _________________/ \/ PLURAL. _Nom._ h[=i]e (_they_). _Dat._ him. _Gen._ hiera.

There are no reflexive pronouns in O. E., and the ordinary {20} personal pronouns are used instead:--_h[=i]e [.g]e.samnodon h[=i]e_ (they collected themselves, assembled); _h[=i]e [=a].b[=ae]don him w[=i]f_ (they asked for wives for themselves). _Self_ is used as an emphatic reflexive adjective agreeing with its pronoun:--_sw[=a] sw[=a] h[=i]e w[=y]s[.c]ton him selfum_ (as they wished for themselves).

POSSESSIVE.

_M[=i]n_ (my), _th[=i]n_ (thy), _[=u]re_ (our), _[=e]ower_ (your), and the dual _uncer_ and _incer_ are declined like other adjectives. The genitives _his_ (his, its), _hiere_ (her), _hiera_ (their) are used as indeclinable possessives.

INTERROGATIVE.

Masc. and Fem. Neut. _Nom._ hw[=a] (_who_), hwaet (_what_). _Acc._ hwone, hwaet. _Dat._ hw[=ae]m, hw[=ae]m. _Gen._ hwaes, hwaes. _Instr._ hw[=y], hw[=y].

_Hwelc_ (which) is declined like a strong adjective: it is used both as a noun and an adjective.

DEMONSTRATIVE.

SINGULAR. Masc. Neut. Fem. _Nom._ se (_that_, _the_), thaet, s[=e]o. _Acc._ thone, thaet, th[=a]. _Dat._ th[=ae]m, th[=ae]m, th[=ae]re. _Gen._ thaes, thaes, th[=ae]re. _Instr._ th[=y], thon, th[=y], (th[=ae]re). \_______________________ __________________/ \/ PLURAL. _Nom._ th[=a]. _Dat._ th[=ae]m. _Gen._ th[=a]ra.

{21}

_Se_ is both a demonstrative and a definite article. It is also used as a personal pronoun:--_h[=e] [.g]e.h[=i]erth m[=i]n word, and wyr[.c]th th[=a]_ (he hears my words, and does them). _S[=e]_ as a demonstrative and pers. pronoun has its vowel long.

SINGULAR. Masc. Neut. Fem. _Nom._ thes (_this_), this, th[=e]os. _Acc._ thisne, this, th[=a]s. _Dat._ thissum, thissum, thisse. _Gen._ thisses, thisses, thisse. _Instr._ th[=y]s, th[=y]s. (thisse). \__________________ ______________/ \/ PLURAL. _Nom._ th[=a]s. _Dat._ thissum. _Gen._ thissa.

Other demonstratives, which are used both as nouns and as adjectives, are _se ilca_ (same), which is always weak, _swelc_ (such), which is always strong.

RELATIVE.

The regular relative is the indeclinable _the_, as in _[=ae]lc th[=a]ra the th[=a]s m[=i]n word [.g]e.h[=i]erth_ (each of those who hears these my words). It is often combined with _s[=e]_, which is declined:--_s[=e] the_ = who, masc., _s[=e]o the_, fem., &c. _S[=e]_ alone is also used as a relative:--_h[=e]r is m[=i]n cnapa, thone ic [.g]e.[.c][=e]as_ (here is my servant, whom I have chosen); sometimes in the sense of 'he who':--_h[=e]r th[=u] haefst thaet th[=i]n is_ (here thou hast that which is thine).

INDEFINITE.

Indefinites are formed with _sw[=a]_ and the interrogative pronouns, thus:--_sw[=a] hw[=a] sw[=a]_, _sw[=a] hwel[.c] sw[=a]_ (whoever), _sw[=a] hwaet sw[=a]_ (whatever). {22}

_[=A]n_ and _sum_ (some) are used in an indefinite sense:--_[=a]n mann_, _sum mann_ = 'a certain man,' hence 'a man.' But the indefinite article is generally not expressed.

_[=Ae]l[.c]_ (each), _[=ae]ni[.g]_ (any), _n[=ae]ni[.g]_ (no, none), are declined like other adjectives.

_[=O]ther_ (other) is always strong:--_th[=a] [=o]thre m[e,]nn_.

_Man_, another form of _mann_, is often used in the indefinite sense of 'one,' French _on_:--_his br[=o]thor Horsan man of.sl[=o]g_ (they killed his brother Horsa).

* * * * *

VERBS.

There are two classes of verbs in O. E., _strong_ and _weak_. The conjugation of strong verbs is effected mainly by means of vowel-gradation, that of weak verbs by the addition of _d_ (-ode, -ede, -de) to the root-syllable.

The following is the conjugation of the strong verb _bindan_ (bind), which will serve to show the endings which are common to all verbs:--

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. _Pres. sing._ 1. bind-e, bind-e. 2. bind-est, bintst, bind-e. 3. bind-eth, bint, bind-e. _plur._ bind-ath, bind-en.

_Pret. sing._ 1. band, bund-e. 2. bund-e, bund-e. 3. band, bund-e. _plur._ bund-on, bund-en.

_Imper. sing._ bind; _plur._ bind-ath. _Infin._ bind-an. _Partic. pres._ bind-ende; _pret._ [.g]e-.bund-en. _Gerund._ t[=o] bind-enne.

For the plural _bindath_, both indicative and imperative, _binde_ is used when the personal pronoun follows immediately after {23} the verb:--_w[=e] bindath_ (we bind), but _binde w[=e]_ (let us bind); so also _g[=a]th!_ (go plur.), but _g[=a] [.g][=e]!_ (go ye).

The present participle may be declined like an adjective. Its declension when used as a noun is given above, p. 10.

The past participle generally prefixes _[.g]e-_, as in _[.g]e.bunden_, _[.g]e.numen_ from _niman_ (take), unless the other parts of the verbs have it already, as in _[.g]e.h[=i]eran_ (hear), _[.g]e.h[=i]ered_. It is sometimes prefixed to other parts of the verb as well. No _[.g]e_ is added if the verb has another prefix, such as _[=a]-_, _be-_, _for-_; thus _for.[.g]iefan_ (forgive) has the past participle _for.[.g]iefen_. The past participle may be declined like an adjective.

Traces of an older passive voice are preserved in the form _h[=a]t-te_ from _h[=a]tan_ (call, name), which is both present 'is called,' and preterite 'was called':--_se munuc h[=a]tte Abbo_ (the monk's name was Abbo).

STRONG VERBS.

In the strong verbs the plural of the pret. indic. generally has a different vowel from that of the sing. (_ic band_, _w[=e] bundon_). The 2nd sing. pret. indic. and the whole pret. subj. always have the vowel of the preterite plural indicative (_th[=u] bunde, ic bunde, w[=e] bunden_.)

The 2nd and 3rd persons sing. of the pres. indic. often mutate the root-vowel, thus:--

a _becomes_ [e,] _as in_ (h[=e]) st[e,]nt _from_ standan (_stand_). ea " ie " fielth " feallan (_fall_). e " i " cwithth " cwethan (_say_). eo " ie " wierth " weorthan (_happen_). [=a] " [=ae] " h[=ae]tt " h[=a]tan (_command_). [=o] " [=e] " gr[=e]wth " gr[=o]wan (_grow_). [=e]a " [=i]e " h[=i]ewth " h[=e]awan (_hew_). [=e]o " [=i]e " [.c][=i]est " [.c][=e]osan (_choose_). [=u] " [=y] " l[=y]cth " l[=u]can (_close_).

{24}

The full ending of the 3rd pers. sing. pres. indic. is _-eth_, which is generally contracted, with the following consonant-changes:--

-teth _becomes_ -tt _as in_ l[=ae]tt _from_ l[=ae]tan (_let_). -deth " -tt " b[=i]tt " b[=i]dan (_wait_). -ddeth " -tt " bitt " biddan (_pray_). -theth " -thth " cwithth " cwethan (_say_). -seth " -st " [.c][=i]est " [.c][=e]osan (_choose_). -ndeth " -nt " bint " bindan (_bind_).

Double consonants become single, as in _h[=e] fielth_ from _feallan_.

Before the _-st_ of the 2nd pers. consonants are often dropt, as in _th[=u] cwist_ from _cwethan_, _th[=u] [.c][=i]est_ from _[.c][=e]osan_; and _d_ becomes _t_, as in _th[=u] bintst_ from _bindan_.

For the changes between _s_ and _r_, _th_ and _d_, _g_ and _h_, see p. 7.

Some verbs, such as _s[=e]on_ (see), drop the _h_ and contract before most inflections beginning with a vowel:--_ic s[=e]o_, _w[=e] s[=e]oth_, _t[=o] s[=e]onne_; but _h[=e] sihth_.

There are seven conjugations of strong verbs, distinguished mainly by the different formation of their preterites. The following lists comprise all the strong verbs that occur in the texts given in this book, together with several others of the commoner ones.

I. 'Fall'-conjugation.

The pret. sing. and pl. has _[=e]o_ or _[=e]_, and the past partic. retains the original vowel of the infinitive. {25}

(_a_) [=e]o-_preterites_.

ea:-- INFINITIVE. THIRD PRES. PRET. SING. PRET. PL. PTC. PRET. feallan (_fall_) fielth f[=e]oll f[=e]ollon feallen healdan (_hold_) hielt h[=e]old h[=e]oldon healden wealdan (_wield_) wielt w[=e]old w[=e]oldon wealden weaxan (_grow_) wiext w[=e]ox w[=e]oxon weaxen

[=a]:-- bl[=a]wan (_blow_) bl[=ae]wth bl[=e]ow bl[=e]owon bl[=a]wen cn[=a]wan (_know_) cn[=ae]wth cn[=e]ow cn[=e]owon cn[=a]wen s[=a]wan (_sow_) s[=ae]wth s[=e]ow s[=e]owon s[=a]wen

[=e]:-- w[=e]pan (_weep_) w[=e]pth w[=e]op w[=e]opon w[=o]pen

_W[=e]pan_ has really a weak present (p. 30) with mutation (the original _[=o]_ re-appearing in the past partic.), but it makes no difference in the inflection.

[=o]:-- fl[=o]wan (_flow_) fl[=e]wth fl[=e]ow fl[=e]owon fl[=o]wen gr[=o]wan (_grow_) gr[=e]wth gr[=e]ow gr[=e]owon gr[=o]wen r[=o]wan (_row_) r[=e]wth r[=e]ow r[=e]owon r[=o]wen

[=e]a:-- b[=e]atan (_beat_) b[=i]ett b[=e]ot b[=e]oton b[=e]aten h[=e]awan (_hew_) h[=i]ewth h[=e]ow h[=e]owon h[=e]awen hl[=e]apan (_leap_) hl[=i]epth hl[=e]op hl[=e]opon hl[=e]apen

(_b_) [=e]-_preterites_.

[=a]:-- h[=a]tan (_command_) h[=ae]tt h[=e]t h[=e]ton h[=a]ten

[=ae]:-- l[=ae]tan (_let_) l[=ae]tt l[=e]t l[=e]ton l[=ae]ten

[=o]:-- f[=o]n (_seize_) f[=e]hth f[=e]ng f[=e]ngon fangen h[=o]n (_hang_) h[=e]hth h[=e]ng h[=e]ngon hangen

{26}

II. 'Shake'-conjugation.

Verbs in _a_ (_ea_) and _[e,]_ (_ie_). _[=O]_ in pret. sing, and pl., _a_ (_ae_) in partic. pret. _Standan_ drops its _n_ in the pret. The partic. pret. of _sw[e,]rian_ is irregular.

a:--

INFINITIVE. THIRD. PRES. PRET. SING. PRET. PL. PTC. PRET. faran (_go_) faerth f[=o]r f[=o]ron faren sacan (_quarrel_) saecth s[=o]c s[=o]con sacen scacan (_shake_) scaecth sc[=o]c sc[=o]con scacen standan (_stand_) st[e,]nt st[=o]d st[=o]don standen

The following shows contraction of original _ea_:--

sl[=e]an (_strike_) sliehth sl[=o]g sl[=o]gon slae[.g]en

[e,]:--

h[e,]bban (_lift_) h[e,]fth h[=o]f h[=o]fon hafen s[.c]ieppan (_create_) s[.c]iepth sc[=o]p sc[=o]pon scapen sw[e,]rian (_swear_) sw[e,]reth sw[=o]r sw[=o]ron sworen

The presents of these verbs are inflected weak, so that their imperative sing. is _h[e,]fe_ and _sw[e,]re_, like that of _w[e,]nian_ (p. 32). _Sw[e,]rian_ has indic. _sw[e,]rige_, _sw[e,]rest_, like _w[e,]nian_; _h[e,]bban_ has _h[e,]bbe_, _h[e,]fst_, &c. like _h[=i]eran_ (p. 30).

III. 'Bind'-conjugation.

_I_ (_ie_, _e_, _eo_) followed by two consonants, one or both of which is nearly always a liquid (_l_, _r_) or nasal (_m_, _n_) in the infin., _a_ (_ae_, _ea_) in pret. sing., _u_ in pret. pl., _u_ (_o_) in ptc. pret. _Findan_ has a weak preterite.

i:--

INFINITIVE. THIRD PRES. PRET. SING. PRET. PL. PTC. PRET. bindan (_bind_) bint band bundon bunden drincan (_drink_) drincth dranc druncon druncen findan (_find_) fint funde fundon funden [.g]ieldan (_pay_) [.g]ielt [.g]eald guldon golden (on)[.g]innan (_begin_) -[.g]inth -gann -gunnon -gunnen {27} grindan (_grind_) grint grand grundon grunden iernan (_run_) [p. 7] iernth arn urnon urnen [.g]e-.limpan (_happen_) -limpth -lamp -lumpon -lumpen scrincan (_shrink_) scrincth scranc scruncon scruncen springan (_spring_) springth sprang sprungon sprungen swincan (_toil_) swincth swanc swuncon swuncen windan (_wind_) wint wand wundon wunden winnan (_fight_) winth wann wunnon wunnen

e:--

berstan (_burst_) bierst baerst burston borsten bre[.g]dan (_pull_) ... brae[.g]d brugdon brogden delfan (_dig_) dilfth dealf dulfon dolfen sweltan (_die_) swilt swealt swulton swolten

eo:--

beorgan (_protect_) bierhth bearg burgon borgen beornan (_burn_)[p. 7] biernth barn burnon burnen [.c]eorfan (_cut_) [.c]ierfth [.c]earf curfon corfen feohtan (_fight_) fieht feaht fuhton fohten weorpan (_throw_) wierpth wearp wurpon worpen weorthan (_become_) wierth wearth wurdon worden

IV. 'Bear'-conjugation.

Verbs in _e_ (_i_), followed by a single consonant, generally a liquid or nasal; in _brecan_ the liquid precedes the vowel. _A_ (_ae_) in pret. sing., _[=ae]_ (_[=a]_) in pret. pl., _o_ (_u_) in ptc. pret. _Cuman_ is irregular.

i:--

INFINITIVE. THIRD PRES. PRET. SG. PRET. PL. PTC. PRET. niman (_take_) nimth nam n[=a]mon numen

e:--

beran (_bear_) bierth baer b[=ae]ron boren brecan (_break_) bricth braec br[=ae]con brocen s[.c]eran (_shear_) s[.c]ierth s[.c]ear s[.c][=e]aron scoren stelan (_steal_) stilth stael st[=ae]lon stolen teran (_tear_) .. taer t[=ae]ron toren

{28}

u:--

cuman (_come_) cymth c[=o]m c[=o]mon cumen

V. 'Give'-conjugation.

Verbs in _e_ (_i_, _eo_, _ie_) followed by single consonants, which are not liquids or nasals. This class differs from the last only in the ptc. pret. which keeps the vowel of the infinitive.

e:--

INFINITIVE. THIRD PRES. PRET. SG. PRET. PL. PTC. PRET. cwethan (_say_) cwithth cwaeth cw[=ae]don cweden etan (_eat_) itt [=ae]t [=ae]ton eten sprecan (_speak_) spricth spraec spr[=ae]con sprecen wrecan (_avenge_) wricth wraec wr[=ae]con wrecen

i:--

biddan (_pray_) bitt baed b[=ae]don beden li[.c][.g]an (_lie_) l[=i]th lae[.g] l[=ae]gon le[.g]en sittan (_sit_) sitt saet s[=ae]ton seten thi[.c][.g]an (_receive_) thi[.g]eth theah th[=ae]gon the[.g]en

All these have weak presents:--imper. _bide_, _li[.g]e_, _site_, _thi[.g]e_. Their _i_s are mutations of the _e_ which appears in their past partic.

ie:--

[.g]iefan (_give_) [.g]iefth [.g]eaf [.g][=e]afon [.g]iefen (on)[.g]ietan (_understand_) -[.g]iett -[.g]eat -[.g][=e]aton -[.g]ieten

The following is contracted in most forms:--

s[=e]on (_see_) sihth seah s[=a]won sewen

VI. 'Shine'-conjugation.

Verbs in _[=i]_, with pret. sing, in _[=a]_, pl. _i_, ptc. pret. _i_.

INFINITIVE. THIRD PRES. PRET. SING. PRET. PL. PTC. PRET. b[=i]dan (_wait_) b[=i]tt b[=a]d bidon biden b[=i]tan (_bite_) b[=i]tt b[=a]t biton biten dr[=i]fan (_drive_) dr[=i]fth dr[=a]f drifon drifen {29} (be)l[=i]fan (_remain_) -l[=i]fth -l[=a]f -lifon -lifen r[=i]dan (_ride_) r[=i]tt r[=a]d ridon riden r[=i]pan (_reap_) r[=i]pth r[=a]p ripon ripen ([=a])r[=i]san (_rise_) -r[=i]st -r[=a]s -rison -risen s[.c][=i]nan (_shine_) s[.c][=i]nth sc[=a]n s[.c]inon s[.c]inen sn[=i]than (_cut_) sn[=i]thth sn[=a]th snidon sniden st[=i]gan (_ascend_) st[=i][.g]th st[=a]g stigon sti[.g]en (be)sw[=i]can (_deceive_) -sw[=i]cth -sw[=a]c -swicon -swicen [.g]e.w[=i]tan (_depart_) -w[=i]tt w[=a]t -witon -witen wr[=i]tan (_write_) wr[=i]tt wr[=a]t writon writen

VII. 'Choose'-conjugation.

Verbs in _[=e]o_ and _[=u]_, with pret. sing. _[=e]a_, pl. _u_, ptc. pret. _o_. _Fl[=e]on_ and _t[=e]on_ contract.

INFINITIVE. THIRD PRES. PRET. SING. PRET. PL. PTC. PRET. b[=e]odan (_offer_) b[=i]ett b[=e]ad budon boden br[=e]otan (_break_) br[=i]ett br[=e]at bruton broten [.c][=e]osan (_choose_) [.c][=i]est [.c][=e]as curon coren fl[=e]ogan (_fly_) fl[=i]ehth fl[=e]ag flugon flogen fl[=e]on (_flee_) fl[=i]ehth fl[=e]ah flugon flogen fl[=e]otan (_float_) fl[=i]ett fl[=e]at fluton floten hr[=e]osan (_fall_) hr[=i]est hr[=e]as hruron hroren hr[=e]owan (_rue_) hr[=i]ewth hr[=e]aw hruwon hrowen for.l[=e]osan (_lose_) -l[=i]est -l[=e]as -luron -loren s[.c][=e]otan (_shoot_) s[.c][=i]ett s[.c][=e]at scuton scoten sm[=e]ocan (_smoke_) sm[=i]ecth sm[=e]ac smucon smocen t[=e]on (_pull_) t[=i]ehth t[=e]ah tugon togen [=a]-thr[=e]otan (_fail_) -thr[=i]ett -thr[=e]at -thruton -throten

[=u]:--

br[=u]can (_enjoy_) br[=y]cth br[=e]ac brucon brocen b[=u]gan (_bow_) b[=y]hth b[=e]ag bugon bogen l[=u]can (_lock_) l[=y]cth l[=e]ac lucon locen l[=u]tan (_bow_) l[=y]tt l[=e]at luton loten sc[=u]fan (_push_) sc[=y]fth s[.c][=e]af scufon scofen

{30}

WEAK VERBS.

There are three conjugations of weak verbs--(1) in _-an_, pret. _-de_ (_h[=i]eran_, _h[=i]erde_, 'hear'); (2) in _-ian_, pret. _-ede_ (_w[e,]nian_, _w[e,]nede_, 'wean'); (3) in _-ian_, pret. _-ode_ (_lufian_, _lufode_, 'love'). The verbs of the first two conjugations nearly all have a mutated vowel in the present and infinitive, which those of the third conjugation very seldom have.

I. _an-_verbs.

This class of weak verbs has the same endings as the strong verbs, except in the pret. and past partic., which are formed by adding _-de_ and _-ed_ respectively, with the following consonant changes.

-ndde _becomes_ -nde _as in_ s[e,]nde _from_ s[e,]ndan (_send_). -llde " -lde " fylde " fyllan (_fill_). -tde " -tte " m[=e]tte " m[=e]tan (_find_). -pde " -pte " dypte " dyppan (_dip_). -cde " -hte " t[=ae]hte " t[=ae][.c]an (_show_).

The past partic. is generally contracted in the same way:--_s[e,]nd_, _m[=e]tt_, _t[=ae]ht_, but some of them often retain the uncontracted forms:--_fylled_, _dypped_. When declined like adjectives they drop their _e_ where practicable:--_fylled_, plur. _fylde_; _h[=i]ered_, _h[=i]erde_.

The 2nd and 3rd pres. sing. ind. are contracted as in the strong verbs.

(_a_) 'Hear'_-class_.

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. _Pres. sing._ 1. h[=i]er-e (_hear_), h[=i]er-e. 2. h[=i]er-st, h[=i]er-e. 3. h[=i]er-th, h[=i]er-e. _plur._ h[=i]er-ath, h[=i]er-en. {31}

_Pret. sing._ 1. h[=i]er-de, h[=i]er-de. 2. h[=i]er-dest, h[=i]er-de. 3. h[=i]er-de, h[=i]er-de. _plur._ h[=i]er-don, h[=i]er-den.

Imper. sing. h[=i]er; plur. h[=i]er-ath. Infin. h[=i]er-an. Ptc. pres. h[=i]er-ende; pret. h[=i]er-ed. Gerund. t[=o] h[=i]er-enne.

Further examples of this class are:--

INFINITIVE. THIRD PRES. PRET. PARTIC. PRET. aet.[=i]ewan (_show_) -[=i]ewth -[=i]ewde -[=i]ewed. c[=y]than (_make known_) c[=y]thth c[=y]thde c[=y]thed, c[=y]dd fyllan (_fill_) fylth fylde fylled (n[=e]a)l[=ae][.c]an (_approach_) -l[=ae][.c]th -l[=ae]hte -l[=ae]ht l[=ae]dan (_lead_) l[ae]tt l[=ae]dde l[=ae]dd l[e,][.c][.g]an (_lay_) l[e,][.g]th l[e,][.g]de l[e,][.g]d [.g]e.l[=i]efan (_believe_) -l[=i]efth -l[=i]efde -l[=i]efed n[e,]mnan (_name_) n[e,]mneth n[e,]mnde n[e,]mned s[e,]ndan (_send_) s[e,]nt s[e,]nde s[e,]nd s[e,]ttan (_set_) s[e,]tt s[e,]tte s[e,]tt sm[=e]an (_consider_) sm[=e]ath sm[=e]ade sm[=e]ad t[=ae][.c]an (_show_) t[=ae][.c]th t[=ae]hte t[=ae]ht w[e,]ndan (_turn_) w[e,]nt w[e,]nde w[e,]nd

(_b_) 'Seek'-_class_.

In this class the mutated vowels lose their mutation in the preterite and past partic., besides undergoing other changes in some verbs.

Those in double consonants (and _[.c][.g]_) simplify them in the contracted 2nd and 3rd sing. pres. indic.:--_s[e,]lle_, _s[e,]lst_, _s[e,]lth_; _s[e,][.c][, g]e_, _s[e,][.g]st_, _s[e,][.g]th_; also in the imperative, which is formed as in Conj. II:--_s[e,]le_, _s[e,][.g]e_, _by[.g]e_, &c. {32}

[e,]:--

INFINITIVE. THIRD PRES. PRET. PARTIC. PRET.

cw[e,]llan (_kill_) cw[e,]lth cwealde cweald r[e,][.c][.c]an (_tell_) r[e,][.c]th reahte reaht s[e,][.c][.g]an (_say_) s[e,][.g]th sae[.g]de sae[.g]d s[e,]llan (_give_) s[e,]lth sealde seald w[e,][.c][.c]an (_wake_) w[e,][.c]th weahte weaht th[e,]n[.c]an (_think_) th[e,]n[.c]th th[=o]hte th[=o]ht

i:--

bringan (_bring_) bringth br[=o]hte br[=o]ht

y:--

by[.c][.g]an (_buy_) by[.g]th bohte boht thyn[.c]an (_appear_) thyn[.c]th th[=u]hte th-uht wyr[.c]an (_work_) wyr[.c]th worhte worht

[=e]:--

r[=e][.c]an (_care_) r[=e][.c]th r[=o]hte r[=o]ht s[=e][.c]an (_seek_) s[=e][.c]th s[=o]hte s[=o]ht

II. 'Wean'-_conjugation_.

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. _Pres. sing._ 1. w[e,]n-i[.g]e (_wean_), w[e,]n-i[.g]e. 2. w[e,]n-est, w[e,]n-i[.g]e. 3. w[e,]n-eth, w[e,]n-i[.g]e. _plur._ w[e,]n-iath, w[e,]n-ien.

_Pret. sing._ 1. w[e,]n-ede, w[e,]n-ede. 2. w[e,]n-edest, w[e,]n-ede. 3. w[e,]n-ede, w[e,]n-ede. _plur._ w[e,]n-edon, w[e,]n-eden.

_Imper._ w[e,]n-e, w[e,]n-iath. _Infin._ w[e,]n-ian. _Partic. pres._ w[e,]n-iende; _pret._ w[e,]n-ed. _Gerund._ t[=o] w[e,]n-ienne.

{33}

So are conjugated all weak verbs with a short mutated root syllable, such as _f[e,]rian_ (carry), _w[e,]rian_ (defend), _[.g]e.byrian_ (befit). There are not many of them.

III. 'Love'-_conjugation_.

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. _Pres. sing._ 1. luf-i[.g]e (_love_), luf-i[.g]e. 2. luf-ast, luf-i[.g]e. 3. luf-ath, luf-i[.g]e. _plur._ luf-iath, luf-ien.

_Pret. sing._ 1. luf-ode, luf-ode. 2. luf-odest, luf-ode. 3. luf-ode, luf-ode. _plur._ luf-odon, luf-oden.

_Imper._ luf-a, luf-iath. _Infin._ luf-ian. _Partic. pres._ luf-iende: _pret._ luf-od. _Gerund._ t[=o] luf-ienne.

So also _[=a]scian_ (ask), _macian_ (make), _weorthian_ (honour), and many others.

_Irregularities._

Some verbs are conjugated partly after I, partly after III. Such are _habban_ (have) and _libban_ (live).

_Habban_ has pres. indic. _haebbe_, _haefst_, _haefth_; _habbath_, subj. _haebbe_, _haebben_, pret. _haefde_, imper. _hafa_, _habbath_, particc. _habbende_, _haefd_.

_Libban_ has pres. _libbe_, _leofast_, _leofath_; _libbath_, subj. _libbe_, pret. _leofode_, imper. _leofa_, _libbath_, particc. _libbende_, _lifiende_; _leofod_.

_F[e,]tian_ (fetch) has pret. _f[e,]tte_.

STRONG-WEAK VERBS.

The strong-weak verbs have for their presents old strong preterites, from which new weak preterites are formed. Note the occasional second person sing. in _t_. {34}

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. _Pres. sing._ 1. w[=a]t (_know_), wite. 2. w[=a]st, wite. 3. w[=a]t, wite. _plur._ witon, witen.

_Pret._ wiste.

_Imper._ wite, witath. _Infin._ witan. _Partic. pres._ witende; _pret._ witen.

The other most important weak-strong verbs are given below in the 1st and 2nd sing. pres. indic., in the plur. indic., in the pret., in the infin. and partic. pret. Of several the last two forms are doubtful, or do not exist.

[=A]h (_possess_), [=a]ge, [=a]gon; [=a]hte; [=a]gen (_only as adjective_)[4].

Cann (_know_) canst, cunnon; c[=u]the; cunnan; c[=u]th (_only as adjective_.)

Dearr (_dare_), durre, durron; dorste.

[. G]e.man (_remember_), -manst; -munde; -munan.

Mae[.g] (_can_), miht, magon, mae[.g]e (_subj._); mihte.

M[=o]t (_may_), m[=o]st, m[=o]ton; m[=o]ste.

S[.c]eal (_shall_), s[.c]ealt, sculon, scyle (_subj._); scolde.

Thearf (_need_), thurfon, thyrfe (_subj._); thorfte; thurfan.

ANOMALOUS VERBS.

(1) Willan (_will_) shows a mixture of subj. forms in the pres. indic. sing.:--

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. _Pres. sing._ 1. wile, wile. 2. wilt, wile. 3. wile, wile. _plur._ willath, willen.

_Pret._ wolde, etc.

{35}

Similarly _nyllan_ (will not):--

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. _Pres. sing._ 1. nyle, nyle. 2. nylt, nyle. 3. nyle, nyle. _plur._ nyllath, nyllen.

_Pret._ nolde, etc.

(2) Wesan (_be_).

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. _Pres. sing._ 1. eom; b[=e]o, s[=i]e; b[=e]o. 2. eart; bist, s[=i]e; b[=e]o. 3. is; bith, s[=i]e; b[=e]o. _plur._ sind; b[=e]oth, s[=i]en; b[=e]on.

_Pret. sing._ 1. waes, w[=ae]re. 2. w[=ae]re, w[=ae]re. 3. waes, w[=ae]re. _plur._ w[=ae]ron, w[=ae]ren.

_Imper._ wes, wesath; b[=e]o, b[=e]oth. _Infin._ wesan; b[=e]on. _Partic. pres._ wesende.

The contracted negative forms are:--_neom_, _neart_, _nis_; _naes_, _n[=ae]re_, _n[=ae]ron_; _n[=ae]re_, _n[=ae]ren_.

(3) D[=o]n (_do_).

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. _Pres. sing._ 1. d[=o], d[=o]. 2. d[=e]st, d[=o]. 3. d[=e]th, d[=o]. _plur._ d[=o]th, d[=o]n.

_Pret._ dyde, etc.

_Imper._ d[=o], d[=o]th. _Infin._ d[=o]n. _Partic. pres._ d[=o]nde; _pret._ [.g]e.d[=o]n.

{36}

(4) G[=a]n (_go_).

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. _Pres. sing._ 1. g[=a], g[=a]. 2. g[=ae]st, g[=a]. 3. g[=ae]th, g[=a]. _plur._ g[=a]th, g[=a]n.

_Pret._ [=e]ode, [=e]ode.

_Imper._ g[=a], g[=a]th. _Infin._ g[=a]n. _Partic. pres._ gangende; _pret._ [.g]e.g[=a]n.

* * * * *

DERIVATION.

PREFIXES.

The following are the most important prefixes, some of which are _verbal_, being confined to verbs and words formed directly from them; some _nominal_, being confined to nouns and adjectives.

[=a]- (1) originally 'forth,' 'away,' as in _[=a].r[=i]san_, 'rise forth,' 'arise'; _[=a].faran_, 'go away,''depart'; but generally only intensive, as in _[=a].cw[e,]llan_ (kill), _[=a].hr[=e]osan_ (fall).

(2) = 'ever' in pronouns and particles, where it gives an indefinite sense, as in _[=a]-hw[=ae]r_ (anywhere), _[=a]-wiht_ (anything).

[=ae][.g]- from _[=a]-[.g]e_-, the _[=a]_ being mutated and the _e_ dropped, has a similar meaning, as in _[=ae][.g]-hwelc_ (each), _[=ae][.g]ther_ = _[=ae][.g]-hwaether_ (either).

be-, originally 'by,' 'around' (cp. the preposition _be_), (1) specializes the meaning of a transitive verb, as in _be.s[e,]ttan_ (beset, surround), _be.s[.c]ieran_ (shear); (2) makes an intransitive verb transitive, as in _be.th[e,]n[.c]an_ (consider) from _th[e,]n[.c]an_ (think); (3) gives a privative meaning, as in _be.h[=e]afdian_ (behead). In some words, such as _be.cuman_ (come), it is practically unmeaning. {37}

for- (which is distinct from the preposition _for_) generally has the sense of 'loss' or 'destruction,' as in _for.d[=o]n_ (destroy), _for.weorthan_ (perish). Of course, if the verb with which it is compounded already has this meaning, it acts merely as an intensitive, as in _for.br[=e]otan_ (break up, break), _for.scrincan_ (shrink up). It also modifies in a bad sense generally, as in _for.s[=e]on_ (despise), or negatives, as in _for.b[=e]odan_ (forbid).

[.g]e- originally meant 'together,' as in _[.g]e.f[=e]ra_ (fellow-traveller, companion) from _f[=e]ran_ (travel). With verbs it often signifies 'completion,' 'attainment,' and hence 'success,' as in _[.g]e.g[=a]n_ (conquer), originally 'go over,' or 'reach,' _[.g]e.winnan_ (win) from _winnan_ (fight). Hence generally prefixed to _h[=i]eran_ and _s[=e]on_, _[.g]e.h[=i]eran_ and _[.g]e.s[=e]on_ strictly meaning 'succeed in hearing, seeing.' It is generally prefixed to past participles (p. 23), where it originally gave the meaning of completion--_[.g]e.lufod_ = 'completely loved.'

mis- = 'mis,' as in _mis-d[=ae]d_ (misdeed).

n- = _ne_ (not), as in _n[=a]_ (not), literally 'never,' _n[=ae]fre_ (never), _naes_ (was not) = _ne waes_.

on- as a verbal prefix has nothing to do with the preposition _on_. It properly signifies 'separation,' as in _on.l[=u]can_ (open) from _l[=u]can_ (lock, close), but is often practically unmeaning, as in _on.[.g]innan_ (begin).

or-, literally 'out of,' is privative, as in _orsorg_ (unconcerned) from _sorg_ (sorrow).

t[=o]- as a verbal prefix has nothing to do with the preposition _t[=o]_ (which occurs in _t[=o].gaedre_, 'together,' &c.), but signifies 'separation,' as in _t[=o].berstan_ (burst asunder), _t[=o].bre[.g]dan_ (shake off), and hence 'destruction,' as in _t[=o].cw[=i]esan_ (crush to pieces, bruise).

un- negatives, as in _un-[.g]es[=ae]li[.g]_ (unhappy). {38}

ENDINGS.

(_a_) NOUNS.

_Personal._

-end, from the present participle _-ende_, = '-er':--_H[=ae]lend_ (healer, Saviour), _b[=u]end_ (dweller).

-ere = '-er':--_s[=a]were_ (sower), _mynetere_ (money-changer, minter) from _mynet_ (coin).

-ing, patronymic, _aetheling_ (son of a noble, prince) from _aethele_ (noble).

_Abstract._

-nes, fem. from adjectives:--_g[=o]d-nes_ (goodness), _rihtw[=i]snes_ (righteousness).

-uth, -tho, fem., generally from adjectives:--_[.g][=e]oguth_ (youth), _str[e,]n[.g]tho_ (strength) from _strang_.

-ung, fem. from verbs:--_scotung_ (shooting, shot), _h[e,]rgung_ (ravaging), from _scotian_, _h[e,]rgian_.

The following are also independent words:--

-d[=o]m, masc.:--_w[=i]s-d[=o]m_ (wisdom), _th[=e]ow-d[=o]m_ (servitude).

-h[=a]d, masc.:--_[.c]ild-h[=a]d_ (childhood).

-r[=ae]den, fem.:--_[.g]e.cwid-r[=ae]den_ (agreement) from _cwide_ (speech); _mann-r[=ae]den_ (allegiance).

-s[.c]ipe, masc.:--_fr[=e]ond-s[.c]ipe_ (friendship). Concrete in _waeter-s[.c]ipe_ (piece of water, water).

(_b_) ADJECTIVES.

-en, with mutation, denotes 'material,' 'belonging to':--_gylden_ (golden), _st[=ae]nen_ (of stone), _h[=ae]then_ (heathen) from _h[=ae]th_ (heath). In _seolcen_ (silken) there is no mutation.

-feald = '-fold':--_hund-feald_ (hundred-fold).

-i[.g]:--_miht-i[.g]_ (mighty); _h[=a]l-i[.g]_ (holy) from _h[=a]l_ (whole). {39}

-isc, with mutation:--_[E,]n[.g]lisc_ (English) from _Angel_; _m[e,]nn-isc_ (human) from _mann_.

-ol:--_swic-ol_ (deceitful).

-iht, with mutation, denotes 'material,' 'nature':--_st[=ae]n-iht_ (stony).

-sum = 'some':--_h[=i]er-sum_ (obedient).

The following exist (sometimes in a different form) as independent words:--

-faest:--_s[=o]th-faest_ (truthful).

-full:--_sorg-full_ (sorrowful), _[.g]e.l[=e]af-full_ (believing, pious).

-l[=e]as = '-less':--_[=a]r-l[=e]as_ (dishonoured, wicked).

-lic (cp. _[.g]e.l[=i]c_) = '-ly':--_folc-lic_ (popular), _heofon-lic_ (heavenly).

-weard = '-ward':--_s[=u]than-weard_ (southward).

VERBS.

-l[=ae][.c]an:--_[=a]n-l[=ae][.c]an_ (unite), _[.g]e.thw[=ae]r-l[=ae][.c]an_ (agree).

ADVERBS.

-e, the regular adverb-termination:--_lange_ (long), _[.g]e.l[=i]ce_ (similarly) from _lang_, _[.g]e.l[=i]c_. Sometimes _-l[=i]ce_ (from _-lic_) is used to form adverbs, as _bl[=i]the-l[=i]ce_ (gladly) from _bl[=i]the_.

DERIVATIONS FROM PARTICIPLES.

Many abstract words are formed from present participles (often in a passive sense) and past participles (often in an active sense):--

-nes:--_for.[.g]iefen-nes_ (forgiveness), _[.g]e.r[e,][.c]ed-nes_ (narrative), _welwillend-nes_ (benevolence).

-lic:--_un[=a]r[=i]med-lic_ (innumerable).

-l[=i]ce:--_welwillend-l[=i]ce_ (benevolently).

* * * * * {40}

SYNTAX.

GENDER.

When masculine and feminine beings are referred to by the same adjective or pronoun, the adjective or pronoun is put in the neuter:--_h[=i]e [.g]e.samnodon h[=i]e_, _ealle th[=a] h[=e]afod-m[e,]nn, and [=e]ac swelce w[=i]f-menn_ ... _and th[=a] h[=i]e bl[=i]thost w[=ae]ron_ ... (they gathered themselves, all the chief men, and also women ... and when they were most merry ...). Here _bl[=i]thost_ is in the neuter plur.

CASES.

Accusative. Some verbs of asking (a question) and requesting, together with _l[=ae]ran_ (teach), take two accusatives, one of the person, and another of the thing:--_h[=i]e hine ne dorston [=ae]ni[.g] thing [=a]scian_ (they durst not ask him anything); _w[=e] magon [=e]ow r[=ae]d [.g]e.l[=ae]ran_ (we can teach you a plan).

The accusative is used adverbially to express duration of time: _hw[=y] stande [.g][=e] h[=e]r ealne dae[.g] [=i]dle?_ (why stand ye here all the day idle?)

Dative. The dative in Old E. is of two kinds, (1) the dative proper, and (2) the instrumental dative, interchanging with the regular instrumental. It is not always easy to separate the two.

(1) The dative proper usually designates personal relations, and is frequently used with verbs, together with an accusative (generally of the thing). The dative is also used with adjectives. It is used not only with verbs of _giving_, &c., as in _h[=e] sealde [=ae]lcum [=a]nne p[e,]ning_ (he gave each a penny); _addressing_, as in _ic [=e]ow s[e,][.c][.g]e_ (I say to you), _h[=e] thancode his Dryhtne_ (he thanked his Lord); but also with many verbs of _benefiting_, _influencing_, &c., as in _ne d[=o] ic th[=e] n[=a]nne t[=e]onan_ (I do thee no injury), _h[=i]e noldon him l[=i]efan_ (they would not allow {41} them to do so); _th[=ae]m r[=e]thum st[=i]erde_ (restrained the cruel ones). Also in looser constructions, to denote the person indirectly affected, benefited, &c., as in _by[.c][.g]ath [=e]ow ele_ (buy for yourselves oil). Note especially the following idiom: _h[=i]e [.g]e.s[=o]hton Bretene Brettum t[=o] fultume_ (they came to Britain as a help to the Britains--to help them); _h[=e] clipode Cr[=i]st him t[=o] fultume_ (he called Christ to his help).

The dative is also used with adjectives of _nearness_, _likeness_, &c.:--_[=E]admund cyning clipode [=a]nne biscop the him [.g]e.h[e,]ndost waes_ (King Edmund summoned a bishop who was nearest at hand to him); _heofona r[=i][.c]e is [.g]e.l[=i]c th[=ae]m mangere the s[=o]hte thaet g[=o]de m[e,]regrot_ (the kingdom of the heavens is like the merchant who sought the good pearl).

(2) The instrumental dative is used to denote the _instrument_ and _manner_ of an action: _h[=e] [.g]e.[e,]ndode yflum d[=e]athe_ (he ended with an evil death). Hence its use to form adverbs, as in _s[.c][=e]afm[=ae]lum_ (sheafwise). It also signifies time when:--_thrim [.g][=e]arum [=ae]r th[=ae]m the h[=e] forth.f[=e]rde_ (three years before he died), which is also expressed by the instrumental itself:--_s[=e]o wolde [e,]fsian [=ae]lce [.g][=e]are thone sanct_ (she used to cut the saint's hair every year); _th[=y] f[=e]orthan [.g][=e]are his r[=i][.c]es_ (in the fourth year of his reign). A past participle with a noun in the instrumental dative is used like the ablative absolute in Latin: _Hubba be.l[=a]f on Northhymbra-lande, [.g]e.wunnenum si[.g]e mid waelhr[=e]ownesse_ (H. remained in Northumbria, victory having been won with cruelty).

Genitive. The genitive is often used in a partitive sense:--_his f[=e]onda sum_ (one of his enemies); _hiera f[=i]f w[=ae]ron dysi[.g]e_ (five of them were foolish). Hence it is generally used with _fela_, as in _fela wundra_ (many miracles); also with numerals when used as substantives (p. 18).

The genitive is often used like an accusative to denote the object of various emotions and mental states, such as {42} _joy_, _desire_, _remembering_:--_h[=i]e thaes fae[.g]nodon sw[=i]the_ (they rejoiced at it greatly); _m[=e] l[=e]ofre w[=ae]re thaet ic on [.g]e.feohte f[=e]olle with th[=ae]m the m[=i]n folc m[=o]ste hiera eardes br[=u]can_ (it would be pleasanter to me to fall in fight that my people might enjoy (possess) their country); _ic thaes [.g]e.wilni[.g]e_ (I desire that); _[.g]if h[=e] his f[=e]ores r[=o]hte_ (if he cared about his life); _h[=e] waes thaes H[=ae]lendes [.g]e.myndi[.g]_ (he was mindful of--he remembered the Saviour).

Some of these verbs, such as _biddan_ (ask), take an accusative of the person and a genitive of the thing:--_h[=e] hine hl[=a]fes bitt_ (he asks him for bread).

Verbs of _depriving_, _restraining_, &c., have the same construction:--_nis Angel-cynn be.d[=ae]led Dryhtnes h[=a]lgena_ (England is not deprived of the Lord's saints).

Some verbs of _giving_, &c., take a genitive of the thing and a dative of the person:--_him waes of.togen [=ae]lces f[=o]dan_ (they were deprived of all food).

The genitive is often used to _define_ an adjective or noun:--_th[=u] eart wierthe sl[e,][.g]es_ (thou art worthy of death); _on th[=ae]m [.g][=e]are the Aelfred aetheling [=a]n and tw[e,]nti[.g] [.g][=e]ara waes_ (in the year when Prince Alfred was twenty-one).

CONCORD.

Adjectives agree with their nouns not only when used attributively (g[=o]de m[e,]nn), but also when the adjective follows the noun, either predicatively or in apposition:--_th[=a] m[e,]nn sind g[=o]de_; _h[=e] [.g]e.seah [=o]thre [=i]dle standan_ (he saw others standing idle); _h[=i]e c[=o]mon mid langum s[.c]ipum, n[=a] manigum_ (they came with long ships, not many).

APPOSITION.

In such expressions as 'the island of Britain,' the second noun is not put in the genitive, but the two are simply put in {43} apposition, both being declined separately:--_Breten [=i]e[.g]land, on Bretene (th[=ae]m) [=i]e[.g]lande_. In 'king Alfred,' &c., the proper name is put first in the same way:--_Aelfred aetheling_ (prince Alfred); _on Aethelredes cyninges dae[.g]e_ (in the days of king Aethelred).

There is a similar apposition with the adjective _sum_ followed by a noun or pronoun, as in _sume th[=a] m[e,]nn_ (some of the men); _th[=a] th[=a] h[=e] s[=e]ow, sumu h[=i]e f[=e]ollon with we[.g]_ (while he sowed, some of them [the seeds] fell by the road). Sometimes the pronoun precedes, as in _th[=a] b[=ae]don h[=i]e sume thaet Samson m[=o]ste him macian sum gamen_ (then some of them asked that Samson might make some sport for them).

Another kind of apposition occurs in instances like the following, where we have an adjective agreeing with a following noun, and denoting a part of it:--_h[=i]e [.g]e.s[=ae]ton s[=u]thanwearde Bretene [=ae]rest_ (they occupied the south of Britain first); _s[=u]thanweard hit_ (= thaet land) _haefdon Peohtas_ (the Picts had the south part of it).

ADJECTIVES.

The weak forms are used:

(1) after the definite article:--_se aethela cyning_ (the noble king); _thaes aethelan cyninges_, _thaet g[=o]de m[e,]regrot_, _th[=a] g[=o]dan m[e,]regrotu_.

(2) after _this_:--_th[=a]s earman landl[=e]ode_ (these poor people, _pl._); _thes h[=a]lga cyning_ (this holy king), _thisses h[=a]lgan cyninges_.

(3) occasionally after other demonstrative and indefinite adjectives, and often after possessive pronouns:--_th[=i]ne d[=i]eglan gold-hordas_ (thy hidden treasures).

(4) in the vocative:--_th[=u] yfla th[=e]ow and sl[=a]wa!_ (thou bad and slothful servant); _[=e]al[=a] th[=u] l[=e]ofa cyning!_ (oh, thou dear king).

Note that _[=o]ther_ always keeps the strong form: _th[=a] [=o]thru d[=e]or_ (the other wild beasts). So also do the possessive pronouns: {44} _th[=a]s m[=i]n word_ (these my words). _[=A]n_ in the sense of 'one' keeps the strong form to distinguish it from the weak _[=a]na_ = 'alone': _thaet [=a]n d[=e]orwierthe m[e,]regrot_ (the one precious pearl).

ARTICLES.

The definite article is omitted as in Modern English before names such as _God_, and also before _Dryhten_ (the Lord), _D[=e]ofol_ (the Devil), although _se D[=e]ofol_ also occurs, and names of nations:--_Bretta cyning_ (king of the Britons).

It is omitted in many prepositional combinations, not only in those where it is omitted in Modern English also, as in _si[.g]efaest on s[=ae] and on lande_ (victorious on sea and on land), but also in many others: _[.g]ew[e,]nde t[=o] wuda on.[.g][=e]an_ (went back to the wood); _se floth[e,]re f[=e]rde eft t[=o] s[.c]ipe_ (the army of pirates went back to their ships); _h[=e] f[=e]ng t[=o] r[=i][.c]e_ (he took the government--came to the throne).

The definite article is, on the other hand, sometimes used where it would not be in Modern E., as in _se mann_ = 'man' (men in general).

The indefinite article is often not expressed at all:--_thaet dyde unhold mann_ (an enemy did that); _h[=e] be.stealcode on land sw[=a] sw[=a] wulf_ (he stole to land like a wolf). Or it is expressed by _sum_: _on th[=ae]m lande waes sum mann, L[=e]ofr[=i][.c] [.g]e.h[=a]ten_ (in that country was a man called L.). Or by _[=a]n_, as in Modern English_:--[=a]n wulf wearth [=a].s[e,]nd t[=o] be.w[e,]rienne thaet h[=e]afod with th[=a] [=o]thru d[=e]or_ (a wolf was sent to protect the head against the other wild beasts).

PRONOUNS.

_Hwaet_ is used interrogatively of persons where we should use 'who':--_h[=e] nyste hwaet h[=i]e w[=ae]ron_ (he did not know who they were). {45}

VERBS.

NUMBER.

After _[=ae]lc th[=a]ra the_ (each of-those-who) the verb is put in the sing., agreeing not with _th[=a]ra the_ but with _[=ae]lc_:--_[=ae]lc th[=a]ra the th[=a]s m[=i]n word [.g]e.h[=i]erth_ (each of those who hear these my words).

When _thaet_ or _this_ is connected with a plural predicate by means of the verb 'to be,' the verb is put in the plural:--_thaet w[=ae]ron th[=a] [=ae]restan s[.c]ipu D[e,]niscra manna the Angel-cynnes land [.g]e.s[=o]hton_ (those were the first ships of Danish men which came to the land of the English race).

Impersonal verbs take an accusative of the person, sometimes also with a genitive of the thing.

Others, such as _thyn[.c]an_ (appear), take a dative of the person:--_waes him [.g]e.th[=u]ht thaet h[=i]e be.h[=y]dden thaet h[=e]afod_ (they thought they (the Danes) had hidden the head).

TENSES.

There being no future inflection in Old E., the present is used instead:--_ne [=a].b[=y]hth n[=ae]fre E[=a]dmund Hinguare_ (Edmund will never submit to H.); _g[=a] [.g][=e] on m[=i]nne w[=i]n[.g]eard, and ic s[e,]lle [=e]ow thaet riht bith_ (go ye into my vineyard, and I will give you what is right). As we see in this example, there is a tendency to use _b[=e]on_ in a future sense. Another example is _[.g]if ic b[=e]o [.g]e.bunden mid seofon r[=a]pum, s[=o]na ic b[=e]o [.g]e.wield_ (if I am bound with seven ropes, I shall at once be overcome). The future is sometimes expressed by _will_ and _shall_, as in Modern English, though generally with a sense of volition with the one, and of necessity with the other, the idea of simple futurity coming out most clearly in the preterites _wolde_ and _scolde_:--

_H[=e] [.g]e.l[=ae]hte [=a]ne l[=e]on the hine [=a].b[=i]tan wolde_ (he seized a lion {46} that was going to devour him); _h[=i]e w[=e]ndon thaet h[=i]e scolden m[=a]re on.f[=o]n_ (they expected to receive more).

The preterite has the meaning of the modern

(1) Preterite and imperfect:--_se s[=a]were [=u]t [=e]ode his s[=ae]d t[=o] s[=a]wenne, and th[=a] th[=a] h[=e] s[=e]ow ..._ (the sower _went_ out to sow his seed, and while he _was sowing_ ...).

(2) Perfect:--_h[=e]r is m[=i]n cnapa, thone ic [.g]e[.c][=e]as_ (here is my servant, whom I have chosen);--_[=u]re cyning c[=o]m n[=u] h[=e]r t[=o] lande_ (our king has just landed here).

(3) Pluperfect:--_th[=a] th[=a] [.g]e.c[=o]mon the ymb th[=a] [e,]ndlyftan t[=i]d c[=o]mon_ (when those came who had come at the eleventh hour).

Periphrastic tenses are sometimes formed, as in Modern E., by _haebbe_ and _haefde_ with the past participles, and often have the meanings of the modern perfect and pluperfect respectively, as in _n[=u] ic haebbe [.g]estr[=i]ened [=o]thru tw[=a] pund_ (now I have gained two other pounds), but even the pluperfect often has the sense of a simple preterite. The participle is undeclinable in the later language, but originally it was declined, being really an adjective in apposition to the noun or pronoun governed by _habban_: _h[=i]e haefdon hiera cyning [=a].worpenne_ (they had deposed their king).

The pluperfect sense is often indicated by the addition of the adverb _[=ae]r_ (before):--_his sw[=e]ora, the [=ae]r waes for.slae[.g]en_ (his neck, which had been cut through).

The periphrastic forms of intransitive verbs are formed with _wesan_:--_siththan h[=i]e [=a].farene w[=ae]ron_ (after they had gone away). Here the participle always agrees with the noun or pronoun with which it is connected.

The periphrases with the present participle have no distinctive meanings of duration, &c.:--_[=a]n mann waes eardiende on Israh[=e]la th[=e]ode, Manu[=e] [.g]e.h[=a]ten_ (a man dwelt in Israel called Manue). {47}

PASSIVE.

The passive is formed with _wesan_ or _weorthan_ with the past participle. These forms are very vague in meaning, and the distinction between the two auxiliaries is not clearly marked, but _wesan_ appears to indicate a state, _weorthan_ an action.

_wearth [.g]e.lufod_ is generally preterite or perfect in meaning: _[=a]n wulf wearth [=a].s[e,]nd_ (a wolf was sent); _m[=i]ne l[=e]ofe the[.g]nas, the on hiera b[e,]ddum wurdon of.slae[.g]ene_ (my beloved thanes, who have been killed in their beds).

_waes [.g]e.lufod_, indicating a state, is naturally pluperfect in meaning:--_se [=ae]rendraca sae[.g]de his hl[=a]forde h[=u] him [.g]e.andwyrd waes_ (the messenger told his lord how he had been answered).

SUBJUNCTIVE.

The subjunctive states something not as a fact, as in the indicative, but merely as an object of thought. Hence it is used to express wish, conditions, doubt, &c.

A. In principal sentences.

_Wish_ and _command_ (often nearly equivalent to the imperative):--_thaes him s[=i]e wuldor and lof [=a] b[=u]tan [e,]nde_ (therefore let there be to him praise and glory ever without end); _ne h[=e] ealu ne drince n[=ae]fre oththe w[=i]n_ (nor shall he ever drink ale or wine).

B. In dependent sentences.

The chief cases are the following:--

(1) In _indirect narrative_ and _question_: _s[=e]o cw[=e]n sae[.g]de thaet hiere n[=ae]re be healfum d[=ae]le [.g]e.sae[.g]d be Salomones m[=ae]rtho_ (the queen said that she had not been told about Solomon's glory by half); _ic [=a]sci[.g]e hw[=ae]r s[=e]o offrung s[=i]e_ (I ask where the offering is); _m[e,]nn woldon s[.c][=e]awian h[=u] h[=e] l[=ae][.g]e_ (men {48} wished to see how he lay). When the statement in the indirect narration is perfectly certain in itself, and not merely accepted on the authority of the speaker, it is put in the indicative:--_h[=e] hiere sae[.g]de on hw[=ae]m his miht waes_ (he told her what his strength consisted in).

(2) After verbs of _desiring_ and _commanding_:--

_thaes ic [.g]e.wilni[.g]e and [.g]e.wys[.c]e mid m[=o]de thaet ic [=a]na ne be.l[=i]fe aefter m[=i]num l[=e]ofum the[.g]num_ (that I desire and wish with heart that I may not remain alone after my dear thanes).

(3) To express _purpose_:--_th[=y] l[=ae]s [.g][=e] thone hw[=ae]te [=a].wyrtwalien_ (lest ye root up the wheat);--_Dryhten [=a]s.t[=a]g nither, t[=o] b[=ae]m thaet h[=e] [.g]e.s[=a]we th[=a] burg_ (the Lord descended, in order that he might see the city).

(4) To express _result_:--_th[=u] naefst th[=a] mihte thaet th[=u] mae[.g]e him with.standan_ (thou hast not the power that thou canst withstand him).

(5) To express _hypothetical comparison_ (as if):--_se wulf folgode forth mid th[=ae]m h[=e]afde, swelce h[=e] tam w[=ae]re_ (the wolf followed on with the head, as if he were tame); _h[=e] [.g]e.l[=ae]hte [=a]ne l[=e]on, and t[=o].brae[.g]d h[=i]e t[=o] sty[.c][.c]um, swelce h[=e] t[=o].t[=ae]re ti[.c][.c]en_ (he seized a lion and tore her to pieces, as if he were rending a kid).

(6) In _conditional_ clauses, generally with _[.g]if_ or _b[=u]tan_, and in _concessive_ clauses with _th[=e]ah_, _th[=e]ah the_:--_God w[=a]t thaet ic nyle [=a].b[=u]gan fram his b[=i]g[e,]ngum [=ae]fre, swelte ic, libbe ic_ (God knows that I will not swerve from his worship ever, whether I die or live); _th[=a]s flotm[e,]nn cumath, and th[=e] cwicne [.g]e.bindath, b[=u]tan th[=u] mid fl[=e]ame th[=i]num f[=e]ore [.g]e.beorge_ (these pirates will come and bind thee alive, unless thou savest thy life with flight); _God hielt [=E]admund h[=a]lne his l[=i]chaman oth thone mi[.c]lan dae[.g], th[=e]ah the h[=e] on moldan c[=o]me_ (God will keep Edmund {49} with his body whole until the great day, although he has come to earth--been buried). Sometimes the idea of 'if' must be got from the context:--_clipiath t[=o] thissum [.g]ieftum sw[=a] hwelce sw[=a] [.g][=e] [.g]e.m[=e]ten_ (summon to this wedding whomsoever ye meet, = _if_ ye meet any one); _h[=i]e be.h[=e]ton hiere s[.c]eattas with th[=ae]m the h[=e]o be.swice Samson_ (they promised her money in consideration of her betraying Samson, = if she would...).

When the statement is assumed as unreal, instead of merely hypothetical, as in the above instances, both clauses are put in the subjunctive, the preterite being substituted for the present, as in Modern English also, where _if I were_ ... implies _I am not_.... The modern distinction between _if I were_ and _if I had been_, the former corresponding to the present indicative _I am not_, the latter to the preterite _I was not_, is not made in Old English, which uses _gif ic w[=ae]re_ in both instances. Sometimes the 'if'-clause has to be supplied in thought:--_m[=e] l[=e]ofre w[=ae]re thaet ic on [.g]e.feohte f[=e]olle with th[=ae]m the m[=i]n folc m[=o]ste hiera eardes br[=u]can_ (I would rather fall in fight that my people might possess their country), where we must supply some such clause as _[.g]if hit sw[=a] b[=e]on mihte_ (if it might be so--if it were possible to save my people by my death).

(7) In clauses dependant on a _negative sentence_:--_nis n[=a]n thing the his mihte with.stande_ (there is nothing that resists his might). Sometimes the negation must be gathered from the context, as in _se h[=a]lga is m[=ae]rra thonne m[e,]nn mae[.g]en [=a].sm[=e]an_ (the saint is more illustrious than men can conceive = the saint is so illustrious that no men can conceive it).

(8) In other cases, to express uncertainty, futurity, &c.: _th[=i]n r[=i][.c]e [.g]e.w[=i]tt fram th[=e], oth thaet th[=u] wite thaet God [.g]e.wielt manna r[=i][.c]a_ (thy kingdom shall depart from thee, till thou knowest that God rules the kingdoms of men); _uton_ {50} _weorthian [=u]rne naman, [=ae]r th[=ae]m the w[=e] s[=i]en t[=o].d[=ae]lde [.g]eond ealle eorthan!_ (let us make our name famous, before we are dispersed over the earth).

The preterite subjunctive is often expressed by _should_ and _would_ with an infinitive, as in Modern English.

_Scolde_ is used after verbs of _desiring_, _requesting_ and _commanding_:--_biddende thone Aelmihtigan thaet h[=e] him [=a]rian scolde_ (praying the Almighty to have mercy on him). In the following example the verb of commanding is understood from the noun _[=ae]rende_:--_h[=e] s[e,]nde t[=o] thaem cyninge b[=e]otlic [=ae]rende, thaet h[=e] [=a].b[=u]gan scolde t[=o] his mannr[=ae]denne, [.g]if h[=e] his f[=e]ores r[=o]hte_ (he sent to the king an arrogant message, that he was to turn to his allegiance, if he cared about his life).

_Wolde_ is used after verbs of _purpose_:--_se cyning [=e]ode inn thaet he wolde [.g]e.s[=e]on th[=a] the th[=ae]r s[=ae]ton_ (the king went in to see those who were sitting there).

INFINITIVE.

After verbs of commanding the infinitive often seems to have a passive sense:--_h[=i]e h[=e]ton him s[e,]ndan m[=a]ran fultum_ (they ordered that more forces should be sent to them). So also after verbs of hearing, &c.:--_thaet m[=ae]ste wael the w[=e] s[e,][.c][.g]an h[=i]erdon_ (the greatest slaughter we have heard told of). In such cases an indefinite pronoun has been omitted: 'ordered them to send ...' etc.

GERUND.

The gerund is used--

(1) to express purpose:--_[=u]t [=e]ode se s[=a]were his s[=ae]d t[=o] s[=a]wenne_ (the sower went forth to sow his seed).

(2) it defines or determines an adjective (adverb or noun): _hit is scandlic ymb swelc t[=o] sprecenne_ (it is shameful to speak of such things). {51}

PREPOSITIONS.

Some prepositions govern the accusative, such as _thurh_ (through), _ymbe_ (about); some the dative (and instrumental), such as _aefter_ (after), _[=ae]r_ (before), _aet_ (at), _be_ (by), _binnan_ (within), _b[=u]tan_ (without), _for_ (for), _fram_ (from), _of_ (of), _t[=o]_ (to).

Some govern both accusative and dative, such as _ofer_ (over), _on_ (on, in), _under_ (under). The general rule is that when motion is implied they take the accusative, when rest is implied, the dative. Thus _on_ with the accusative signifies 'into,' with the dative 'in.' But this rule is not strictly followed, and we often find the accusative used with verbs of rest, as in _h[=e] his h[=u]s [.g]e.timbrode ofer st[=a]n_ (he built his house on a rock), and conversely, the dative with verbs of motion, as in _h[=i]e f[=e]ollon on st[=ae]nihte_ (they fell on stony ground).

As regards the use and meaning of the prepositions, it must be noticed that _in_ is very seldom used, its place being supplied by _on_, the meaning 'on' being in its turn often expressed by _ofer_, as in the passage just quoted.

When a thing is referred to, _th[=ae]r_ is substituted for _hit_, the preposition being joined on to the _th[=ae]r_, so that, for instance, _th[=ae]r-t[=o]_ corresponds to _t[=o] him_; _h[=i]e l[=ae]ddon thone cyning t[=o] [=a]num tr[=e]owe, and t[=i]e[.g]don hine th[=ae]r-t[=o]_ (they led the king to a tree, and tied him to it). So also _h[=e]r-be[=e]astan_ is equivalent to 'east of this (country).'

Prepositions sometimes follow, instead of preceding the words they modify, sometimes with other words intervening: _h[=i]e scuton mid gafelocum him t[=o]_ (they shot at him with missiles); _h[=i]e cw[=ae]don him be.tw[=e]onan_ (they said among themselves); _th[=ae]m Aelmihtigan t[=o] lofe, the h[=i]e on [.g]e.l[=i]efdon_ (to the praise of the Almighty, in whom they believed), where _on_ {52} refers to the indeclinable _the_. So also in _thaet h[=u]s the h[=e] inne wunode_ (the house he dwelt in).

Where the noun modified by such a preposition is not expressed, the preposition becomes an adverb: _se cyning s[e,]nde his h[e,]re t[=o], and for.dyde th[=a] mannslagan_ (the king sent his army to the place, and destroyed the murderers).

NEGATION.

The negative particle is _ne_, which drops its _e_ before some common verbs and pronouns, as in _nis_ = _ne is_, _n[=a]n_ = _ne [=a]n_. The negative particle is prefixed to every finite verb in a sentence, and to all the words besides which admit the contracted forms:--_t[=o].cw[=i]esed hr[=e]od h[=e] ne for.br[=i]ett_ (he breaks not the bruised reed), _hit n[=a] ne f[=e]oll_ (it did not fall); _n[=a]n mann nyste n[=a]n thing_ (no man knew anything). So also with _ne ... ne_ = 'neither ... nor': _ne fl[=i]tt h[=e] ne h[=e] ne hr[=i]emth_ (he neither disputes nor cries out).

CORRELATION.

Correlation is often more fully expressed in Old than in Modern English, as in _th[=a] th[=a] m[e,]nn sl[=e]pon, th[=a] c[=o]m his f[=e]onda sum_ = '_when_ the men slept, _then_ came one of his enemies.' In _th[=a] th[=a]_ = 'when' the two correlatives are brought immediately together:--_th[=a] th[=a] h[=e] s[=e]ow, sumu h[=i]e f[=e]ollon with we[.g]_ = 'then when he sowed, some of them fell by the road.' In the following example the conjunction _thaet_ is correlative with the pronoun _thaet_:--_thaes ic [.g]e.wilni[.g]e thaet ic [=a]na ne be.l[=i]fe aefter m[=i]num l[=e]ofum the[.g]num_--'that I desire, that I may not remain alone after my dear thanes.' Sometimes a word is used to include both the demonstrative and the relative meaning:--_h[=e] [.g]e.br[=o]hte hine th[=ae]r h[=e] hine [=ae]r [.g]e.nam_ (he brought him to the place where he took him from). {53}

WORD-ORDER.

The Old English word-order resembles that of German in many respects, though it is not so strict, thus:--

The verb comes before its nominative when the sentence is headed by an adverb or adverbial group, or when the object or predicate is put at the head of the sentence:--_th[=a] cwaeth se cyning_ (then said the king); _[=ae]rest w[=ae]ron b[=u]end thisses landes Brettas_ (at first the Britons were the inhabitants of this country); _on his dagum c[=o]mon [=ae]rest thr[=e]o s[.c]ipu_ (in his days three ships first came); _thaet b[=ae]ron olfendas_ (camels carried it); _m[=ae]re is se God the Dani[=e]l on be.l[=i]efth_ (great is the God that Daniel believes in).

The infinite often comes at the end of the sentence; _w[=e] magon [=e]ow r[=ae]d [.g]e.l[=ae]ran_ (we can teach you a plan).

The finite verb often comes at the end in dependent sentences, an auxiliary verb often coming after an infinitive or participle; _thaet w[=ae]ron th[=a] [=ae]restan s[.c]ipu D[e,]niscra manna the Angel-cynnes land [.g]e.s[=o]hton_ (those were the first ships of Danish men which came to the land of the English race); _thaet m[=ae]ste wael the w[=e] s[e,][.c][.g]an h[=i]erdon oth thisne andweardan dae[.g]_ (the greatest slaughter that we have heard tell of up to this present day); _thaet h[=i]e thone Godes mann [=a].bitan scolden_ (in order that they should devour the man of God).

There is a tendency to put the verb at the end in principal sentences also, or, at least, to bring it near the end: _hiene man of.sl[=o]g_ (they killed him); _h[=i]e th[=ae]r si[.g]e n[=a]mon_ (they got the victory there).

* * * * *

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GENERAL TABLE OF ENDINGS.

NOUNS. STRONG. WEAK. _M._ _N._ _F._ _M._ _N._ _F._ _Sg. N._ -- -- -(u) -a -e -e _A._ -- -- -(e) -an -e -an _D._ -e -e -e -an -an -an _G._ -es -es -e -an -an -an \______ ______/ \/ _Pl. N._ -as -(u) -a -an _D._ -um -um -um -um _G._ -a -a -(en)a -ena

ADJECTIVES. _Sg. N._ -- -- -(u) -a -e -e _A._ -ne -- -(e) -an -e -an _D._ -um -um -re -an -an -an _G._ -es -es -re -an -an -an _I._ -e -e (-re) (-an -an -an) _Pl. N._ -e -(u) -e \______ ______/ \______ ______/ \/ \/ -an _D._ -um -um _G._ -ra -ra

VERBS. PRESENT. PRETERITE. _Indic._ _Subj._ _Indic._ _Subj._ _Sg._ 1. -e; -i[.g]e -(i[.g])e - ; -de -e; -de 2. -(e)st; -ast -(i[.g])e -e; -dest -e; -de 3. -(e)th; -ath -(i[.g])e - ; -de -e; -de _Pl._ -ath; -iath -(i)en -on; -don -en; -den _Imper. sg._ -(a); _pl._ -(i)ath. _Infin._ -(i)an. _Partic. pres._ -(i)ende; _pret._ -en, -ed, -od. _Ger._ (i)enne.

* * * * *

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TEXTS.