Elementary Composition · Part 6

Exercise 53.--Distinguish between the meaning of the following words: luxuriant and luxurious; effect and affect; disease and decease; descent and dissent; principal and principle; suspect and expect; sensuous and sensible; allude and elude; noted and notorious; emigrant and immigrant; ovation and innovation; torpid and tepid.

21. Figures of Speech.--There is a strange way we all have of using words in a sense different from that of ordinary expression. We say, for example, that a brave soldier "was a lion." Of course, he was not a lion actually; he merely had certain qualities which we think lions have to a particularly great degree, that is, strength and courage. In the same way, especially in joke, we may speak of a person as an ass, a mule, a fox, a goose, an elephant, etc. Or, instead of saying that a soldier fought bravely, we may say that he fought like a lion, and similarly, that he was as stubborn as a mule, as keen as a fox, etc. We thus say either what a thing is not, or what it is like, instead of what it is. Such expressions are called figures (that is, forms) of speech. In a metaphor, one thing is called by the name of another. In a simile, one thing is said to be like another.

We use both the metaphor and the simile quite frequently and naturally in our ordinary speech and writing, particularly when our feelings are aroused in any way.

1. Bread is the staff of life. (Metaphor.) 2. The ground was an oven floor; and the breeze that passed by, the breath of a furnace. (Metaphor.) 3. His eye glowed like a fiery spark. (Simile.) 4. The carded wool, like a snowdrift, was piled at her knee. (Simile.)

Exercise 54.--Pick out the metaphors and similes in the following sentences:--

1. In this world a man must either be anvil or hammer. 2. He beheld the lights in the houses, shining like stars in the dusk and mist of the evening. 3. Hearty and hale was he, an oak that is covered with snowflakes. 4. Their lives glide on like rivers that water the woodland. 5. Their hearts leaped like the roe, when he hears in the woodland the voice of the huntsman. 6. Life is a sheet of paper white. 7. Her eyes are stars; her voice is music. 8. A fat little steamer rolled itself along like a sailor on shore. 9. He glared at us like a tiger out of a jungle. 10. Cornwallis, speaking of Washington, said he would "bag the old fox" in the morning. 11. He is a little chimney and heated hot in a moment. 12. John is the black sheep of the family. 13. She is like a gleam of sunlight on a dark day. 14. Pleasant words are as a honeycomb, sweet to the soul and health to the bones. 15. Her heart is as pure as the lilies.

Exercise 55.--Change the following similes and metaphors to plain language:--

1. He is a Samson. 2. He is a wet blanket. 3. They are a pair of turtle doves. 4. Never cross bridges until you come to them. 5. He is a tower of strength. 6. You are pure gold. 7. Night's candles are burnt out. 8. He is unstable as water. 9. He carries the world on his shoulders. 10. What a bear he is! 11. That is a hard nut to crack. 12. Don't be a dog in the manger. 13. Mother nature laughs around. 14. Don't rub him the wrong way. 15. The Roman mother said of her children, "These are my jewels."

Exercise 56.--Find similes or metaphors to express the following:--

1. Time passes quickly. 2. Her eyes are very bright. 3. The boat moved rapidly through the water. 4. She sings very sweetly. 5. The wind makes a sound in the tops of the pines. 6. He is very cross. 7. They are exceedingly poor. 8. Do not find fault with a gift. 9. Her hair is fine and soft. 10. The night was very dark.

Exercise 57.--I. Compare the two following passages. Notice how the account of the beginning of the boat race loses in force by the changes from figurative language to plain language.

1. Hark! the first gun. The report sent Tom's heart into his mouth. The crowds on the bank began to be agitated by the shadow of the coming excitement.

Long before the sound of the starting-gun can roll up the river, the pent-up life and energy which has been held in leash is let loose.

2. Hark! the first gun. The report made Tom nervous. The crowds on the bank began to be agitated by the thought of the coming excitement.

Long before the sound of the starting-gun can be heard up the river, the life and energy which has been checked is released.

II. Rewrite the following, changing the similes and metaphors to plain language. Notice how much the paragraph loses in force.

Isn't he grand, the captain, as he comes forward like lightning, stroke after stroke? As the space narrows, the fiery little cockswain's eyes flash with excitement.

Exercise 58.--Rewrite the following, using two or more similes or metaphors:--

The first snow came. It covered the brown fields and green meadows. It protected the roots of the plants hidden under it. It was very white and clean. It covered the bushes and trees and fences with a soft white covering.

Exercise 59.--Write sentences comparing the descent of an eagle upon its prey to the fall of a thunderbolt; the falling of rain to weeping; a cheerful face to a sunbeam; the loss of hope to the setting of the sun; a modest little girl to a violet; a sailing vessel to a bird; dandelions to pieces of gold; a good book to a friend; a burst of anger to a storm; old age to sunset.

Exercise 60.--Write a paragraph describing something you have seen in nature,--a brook, a meadow where cattle are grazing, a field of daisies, a waterfall, or anything else you may choose. Try to use at least one metaphor or simile.

22. Mistakes in the Use of Words.--Let us now consider the principal errors which we are likely to make with regard to words.

23. Spelling.--If our letters corresponded exactly to our English sounds, we could all spell fairly well, because we could use the symbols that answered to our pronunciation. But our letters do not agree well with our sounds; and there are many oddities and inconsistencies which cause the young student a great deal of trouble. Many plans have been proposed for simplifying our spelling, and it is to be hoped that eventually some wise scheme will be generally adopted, but that is not likely to come to pass for many years, and in the meantime we must follow the established custom. If we do not learn to spell in this way, we run the risk of being thought unintelligent and uneducated. As a matter of fact, however, students of your age are already over the worst of their troubles in this respect. All they have to do is to pay careful attention to the form of words as they read, and to keep a list of the words which they spell incorrectly in their own compositions, making sure that they do not make the same mistake a second time.

A set of rules which will be of service to you will be found in the Appendix.

24. Slang.--By slang we mean strange words or expressions, not employed in serious or dignified composition, whether written or spoken. They are sometimes used in conversation, largely in jest, by persons of intelligence and education, but more generally by persons of defective education, who are not really acquainted with the forms of the language used by the educated classes. There can be no great objection to playing with words on occasions where play is appropriate, particularly when the speakers are young or full of boisterous fun. It is, however, unwise for young students to get the habit of thus playing with words so firmly established that they play when they should be serious, or that they become unfamiliar with really good English. Particular care should be taken to avoid slang that is vulgar or coarse.

Here is an extract which is intended to represent the natural and playful speech of a boy of high spirits:--

"I say, East, can't we get something else besides potatoes? I've got lots of money, you know."

"Bless us, yes, I forgot," said East, "you've only just come. You see all my tin's been gone this twelve weeks. I've got a tick at Sally's, of course; but then I hate running it high, you see, toward the end of the half, because one has to shell out for it all directly one comes back, and that's a bore."

"Well, what shall I buy?" said Tom, "I'm hungry."

"I say," said East, "you're a trump, Brown. I'll do the same by you next half. Let's have a pound of sausages, then; that's the best grub for tea I know of."--THOMAS HUGHES: Tom Brown's Schooldays.

There is a certain vigor and picturesqueness of expression here, and it would be absurd to expect boys, on all occasions, to speak like dictionaries. On the other hand, you will readily see that the italicized expressions in the following sentences would be wholly inappropriate in serious written composition.

1. John made a bad break. 2. Your new hat is simply immense. 3. I think that's the limit. 4. Children should take a back seat. 5. He passed in his checks. 6. That's only a bluff. 7. He's a big chump. 8. The people made a big kick. 9. That boy is a fresh kid. 10. He chucked the tea overboard.

Exercise 61.--Rewrite the sentences given above, substituting correct English for the slang words or expressions.

What slang expression do you use most frequently? Write a paragraph explaining exactly what you mean by it.

Exercise 62.--Point out the exaggeration in the use of the italicized words by giving the meaning of the word. Suggest words which might be substituted for them.

1. We had an awfully good time. 2. Butter is frightfully dear. 3. I'm terribly tired. 4. We were horribly bored. 5. He is tremendously pleased. 6. This is a magnificent lead pencil. 7. You are fearfully late this morning. 8. I adore chocolate fudge. 9. This is beautiful jelly cake. 10. What a splendid apple!

25. Errors in the Forms of Words.--The following exercises will give you practice in the forms of words in which young students most often make mistakes.

Exercise 63.--Write sentences containing the following:--

Babies', women's, boy's, boys', girl's, children's, man's, men's, girls', baby's, cats', cat's.

Exercise 64.--Write from dictation:--

1. The dog returns at John's call and rubs against his legs. He waits while his master's horse is dozing at the post, and his master talks within, and gossips with the other dogs, who are snapping at the flies. Nobody knows how many dogs' characters are destroyed in this gossip. 2. Malcolm entered the ladies' cabin and looked for a seat. A baby, who was pulling impatiently at its mother's dress, suddenly ran to him, crying, "Baby's papa,"--to his great embarrassment. 3. It's now midnight. 4. Olive's skates are with Alice's. 5. Yours is not so well prepared as ours. 6. Read Dickens's "Christmas Carol."

Exercise 65.--I. Fill the blanks with I or me. Give reasons for your choice.

1. His lecture gave pleasure to Frank and ----. 2. He is cleverer than ----. 3. This is for you and ----. 4. Henry and ---- went driving. 5. Is it you? It is ----. 6. May Ethel and ---- remain after school? 7. There is an agreement between you and ----. 8. This story was read by ----. 9. My sister and ---- were traveling through Yellowstone Park.

II. Fill the blanks with we or us:--

1. ---- girls have formed a society. 2. He gave ---- boys permission to leave early. 3. Was it ---- whom you saw? 4. You know that as well as ----. 5. You are far nobler than ----. 6. You can do it better than ----. 7. He has promised to take our cousin and ---- to the circus. 8. He wishes to give ---- pleasure.

III. Fill the blanks with he or him:--

1. It was ----. 2. All except ---- came early. 3. I can do it as well as ----. 4. Who saw it first, you or ----? 5. I have no time for children like you and ----. 6. What are you and ---- doing? 7. It was either ---- or James that did it. 8. ---- who had promised failed to fulfill his promise. 9. I thought it was ----. 10. I should not like to be ----.

IV. Fill the blanks with she or her:--

1. We gave ---- one more chance. 2. ---- and I are going. 3. You read better than ----. 4. Can it be ----? 5. I am sure it is ----. 6. I will keep you and ----. 7. ---- and her friends have gone. 8. If I were ---- I would do it. 9. The fault lies between you and ----. 10. I am going with ----.

V. Fill the blanks with they or them:--

1. We are as good as ----. 2. Could it have been ----? 3. It was ----. 4. ---- and their company have gone. 5. We are not as well educated as ----.

VI. Fill the blanks with who or whom:--

1. ---- are you to believe? 2. ---- do you think it was? 3. I like to help those ---- deserve it. 4. Do you remember ---- you saw? 5. Can you tell ---- to believe? 6. ---- can this be from? 7. ---- do you think this is? 8. I heard from a boy ---- was a pupil. 9. He invited all ---- he believed to be his friends. 10. He saw a man ---- he supposed to be the minister. 11. I gave it to the one ---- seemed to need it most. 12. I hardly know ---- to believe. 13. I have appointed a clerk ---- I believe can be trusted. 14. We know ---- you are. 15. Mary, ---- is my friend, will certainly support me. 16. Lincoln was the man ---- liberated the slaves. 17. If I cannot believe in her, in ---- can I believe? 18. I will give it to the one ---- gets here first. 19. They left me in doubt as to ---- it was. 20. I have found my child ---- was lost. 21. A man ---- I expected to meet failed to arrive. 22. He spoke to the boy ---- he pitied. 23. He helped the boy, ---- had been deserted by his parents. 24. He was a man ---- was greatly beloved. 25. Helen, ----, I am told, is the winner of the medal, is a very studious child.

Exercise 66.--I. Use some form of verb set or sit:--

1. ---- the plant on the window sill. 2. He ---- the table. 3. The hen is ----. 4. Harold is ---- out tomato plants. 5. The shepherds ---- on the ground in a row. 6. They were ---- there at nightfall. 7. He ---- in the front seat. 8. She was ---- by the fire. 9. We ---- under the sycamore tree.

H. Use some form of lie or lay:--

I. ---- still and rest. 2. He ---- under the lilac bush. 3. He was ---- there when I arrived. 4. We ---- her in the cold, moist earth. 5. Mary, ---- on the couch. 6. The men are ---- a board walk. 7. We have ---- our plan. 8. The ship is ---- in the harbor. 9. She has ---- there since seven o'clock.

III. Use some form of do:--

1. My work is ----. 2. He ---- (past tense) his work well. 3. We ---- (past tense) our duty. 4. Has he ---- it yet? 5. You---- (past tense) it.

IV. Use some form of bring or take:--

1. Horace ---- his teacher a rose. 2. Miss Klein ---- it home with her. 3. Frank, --- -me your book. 4. He ---- it to me. 5. He has ---- it to me. 6. He ---- his dog into the garden. 7. He has ---- it home.

V. Use some form of learn and teach:--

1. ---- me to sew. 2. Mother has ---- me to knit. 3. I have ---- how to sew. 4. I am ---- how to cook. 5. She ---- her brother how to skate. 6. She is ---- him to be fearless.

VI. Use some form of see:--

1. I ---- the sunset. 2. I have ---- the sunset. 3. He has ---- the procession. 4. He ---- it now.

VII. Use correctly in sentences see, saw, seen.

VIII. Use in sentences all forms of the following verbs:--

Go, drive, break, do, ring, run, bring, lie, lay, sit, set, teach, read, know, take.

IX. Change the form of the verbs below from present to perfect or past perfect:--

1. The boy runs rapidly. 2. The old man rings the bell at sundown. 3. I saw the lights of the village. 4. Tiny Tim sings very sweetly. 5. We sit by the fire in the gloaming. 6. Mr. Towne teaches drawing. 7. Mary reads well. 8. He lays fresh flowers on her grave. 9. He sets a light in the window. 10. Mary plays the piano.

CHAPTER V

CONDENSATION, EXPANSION, AND PARAPHRASE

26. Writing in which the Ideas are already at Hand.--Young people have an abundance of things to write about. Their lives are usually full of interesting incidents, and their minds are fresh and eager. Before passing on, however, to the principal part of composition, that in which the writer expresses his own ideas, let us undertake a little practice in a form of composition in which the ideas are furnished us. We shall thus not have to devote so much effort to thinking what we are going to write, and can devote all the more attention to the pleasing form of what we write.

27. Condensation.--Here are two well-written and clear paragraphs on an interesting topic, and beneath each are two or three pleasing sentences which give the same idea in a shorter or condensed form.

1. Centuries ago, in a remote village among some wild hills in France, there lived a country maiden, Joan of Arc, who was at this time in her twentieth year. She had been a solitary girl from her childhood; she had often tended sheep and cattle for whole days where no human figure was seen or human voice was heard; and she had often knelt, for hours together, in the gloomy empty little village chapel, looking up at the altar and at the dim lamp burning before it, until she fancied that she saw shadowy figures standing there, and even that she heard them speak to her.--CHARLES DICKENS: A Child's History of England.

Joan of Arc lived centuries ago in a remote French village. Her childhood had been a solitary one. Often she was for days alone with her sheep, and she knelt long alone in the gloomy village chapel, where she fancied that she saw shadowy shapes that spoke to her.

2. I think it was Hans, our Eskimo hunter, who thought he saw a broad sledge track. The drift had nearly effaced it, and we were some of us doubtful at first whether it was not one of those accidental rifts which the gales make in the surface snow. But, as we traced it on to the deep snow among the hummocks, we were led to footsteps; and, following these with religious care, we at last came in sight of a small American flag fluttering from a hummock, and lower down a little banner hanging from a tent pole hardly above the drift. It was the camp of our disabled comrades; we reached it after an unbroken march of twenty-one hours.--E. E. KANE: Arctic Explorations.

Hans, our Eskimo hunter, found what seemed to be the faint traces of a sledge, and this led us to footsteps. Following these with great care, we came at length to the camp of our disabled comrades.