9. Either Hamlet was mad, or he feigned madness admirably. · Part 2

+The Style of the Author.+--This selection is largely +Narrative.+ Its leading facts were doubtless supplied by the testimony given in the case; but much of the matter must have come from the imagination of Mr. Webster. Everything is so skillfully and vividly put that the story, touched with description, has all the effect of an argument. One quality of it is its clearness, its perspicuity. It is noticeable also that very little imagery is used, that the language is plain language. But it is impossible to read these paragraphs without being most profoundly impressed with their energy, their force.

The style is forcible because (1) the +subject-matter+ is +easily grasped+; (2) because +simple words+ are +used+, words understood even by children; because (3) these +words+ are +specific+ and +individual+, not generic; because (4) of the grateful +variety of sentences+; (5) because of the +prevalence of short sentences+; because (6) of the +repetition of the thought+ in successive sentences; because (7), though the murder took place some time before, Webster speaks as if it were +now taking place+ in our very sight. Find proof of what we have just said--proof of (2), in paragraphs 1 and 3; proof of (3), in sentences 3, 4, and 5, paragraph 2; proof of (4), throughout; of (5) and (6), in paragraphs 3 and 4; and of (7), in the first three paragraphs.

In paragraph 3, a remarkable sameness prevails. The sentences here are framed largely on one plan. They are mostly of the same length. The order of the words in them is the same; often the words are the same; and, even when they are not, those in one clause or sentence seem to suggest those in the next. This sameness is not accidental. The more real the murderer's fancied security is made in this paragraph to appear, the more startling in the next paragraph will be the revelation of his mistake. Hence no novelty in the words or in their arrangement is allowed to distract our attention from the dominant thought. The sentences are made to look and sound alike and to be alike that their effect may be cumulative. The principle of +Parallel Construction+, the principle that sentences similar in thought should be similar in form, is here allowed free play.

TO THE TEACHER.--Do not be discouraged should your pupils fail to grasp at first all that is here taught. They probably will not fully comprehend it till they have returned to it several times. It will, however, be impossible for them to study it without profit. The meaning will grow upon them. In studying our questions and suggestions the pupils should have the "Extract" before them, and should try to verify in it all that is taught concerning it.

* * * * *

PARTS OF SPEECH SUBDIVIDED

LESSON 85.

CLASSES OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.

+Introductory Hints+.--You have now reached a point where it becomes necessary to divide the eight great classes of words into subclasses.

You have learned that nouns are the names of things; as, _girl_, _Sarah_. The name _girl_ is held in common by all girls, and hence does not distinguish one girl from another. The name _Sarah_ is not thus held in common; it does distinguish one girl from other girls. Any name which belongs in common to all things of a class we call a +Common Noun+; and any particular name of an individual, distinguishing this individual from others of its class, we call a +Proper Noun+. The "proper, or individual, names" which in Rule 1, Lesson 8, you were told to begin with capital letters are proper nouns.

Such a word as _wheat_, _music_, or _architecture_ does not distinguish one thing from others of its class; there is but one thing in the class denoted by each, each thing forms a class by itself; and so we call these words common nouns.

In Lesson 8 you learned that pronouns are not names, but words used instead of names. Any one speaking of himself may use _I_, _my_, etc., instead of his own name; speaking to one, he may use _you_, _thou_, _your_, _thy_, etc., instead of that person's name; speaking of one, he may use _he_, _she_, _it_, _him_, _her_, etc., instead of that one's name. These little words that by their form denote the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of are called +Personal Pronouns+.

By adding _self_ to _my_, _thy_, _your_, _him_, _her_, and _it_, and _selves_ to _our_, _your_, and _them_, we form what are called +Compound Personal Pronouns+, used either for emphasis or to reflect the action of the verb back upon the actor; as, _Xerxes himself_ was the last to cross the Hellespont; The _mind_ cannot see _itself_.

If a noun, or some word or words used like a noun, is to be modified by a clause, the clause is introduced by _who_, _which_, _what_, or _that_; as, I know the man _that_ did that. These words, relating to words in another clause, and binding the clauses together, are called +Relative Pronouns+. By adding _ever_ and _soever_ to _who_, _which_, and _what_, we form what are called the +Compound Relative Pronouns+ _whoever_, _whosoever_, _whichever_, _whatever_, etc., used in a general way, and without any word expressed to which they relate.

If the speaker is ignorant of the name of a person or a thing and asks for it, he uses _who_, _which_, or _what_; as, _Who_ did that? These pronouns, used in asking questions, are called +Interrogative Pronouns+.

Instead of naming things a speaker may indicate them by words pointing them out as near or remote; as, Is _that_ a man? What is _this_? or by words telling something of their number, order, or quantity; as, _None_ are perfect; The _latter_ will do; _Much_ has been done. Such words we call +Adjective Pronouns+.

DEFINITIONS.

+A _Noun_ is the name of anything+. [Footnote: Most common nouns are derived from roots that denote qualities. The root does not necessarily denote the most essential quality of the thing, only its most obtrusive quality. The sky, a shower, and scum, for instance, have this most noticeable feature; they are a cover, they hide, conceal. This the root +sku+ signifies, and _sku_ is the main element in the words _sky_, _shower_ (Saxon _scu: r_), and _scum_ that name these objects, and in the adjective _obscure_.

A noun denoting at first only a single quality of its object comes gradually, by the association of this quality with the rest, to denote them all.

Herein proper nouns differ from common. However derived, as _Smith_ is from the man's office of smoothing, or _White_ from his color, the name soon ceases to denote quality, and becomes really meaningless.]

+A _Common Noun_ is a name which belongs to all things of a class+.

+A _Proper Noun_ is the particular name of an individual+.

+Remark+.--It may be well to note two classes of common nouns--_collective_ and _abstract_. A +Collective Noun+ is the name of a number of things taken together; as, _army_, _flock_, _mob_, _jury_. An +Abstract Noun+ is the name of a quality, an action, a being, or a state; as, _whiteness_, _beauty_, _wisdom_, (the) _singing_, _existence_, (the) _sleep_.

+A _Pronoun_ is a word used for a noun+. [Footnote: In our definition and general treatment of the pronoun, we have conformed to the traditional views of grammarians; but it may be well for the student to note that pronouns are something more than mere substitutes for nouns, and that their primary function is not to prevent the repetition of nouns.

1. Pronouns are not the names of things. They do not, like nouns, lay hold of qualities and name things by them. They seize upon relations that objects sustain to each other and denote the objects by these relations. _I_, _you_, and _he_ denote their objects by the relations these objects sustain to the act of speaking; _I_ denotes the speaker; _you_, the one spoken to; and _he_ or _she_ or _it_, the one spoken of. _This_ and _that_ denote their objects by the relative distance of these from the speaker; _some_ and _few_ and _others_ indicate parts separated from the rest. Gestures could express all that many pronouns express.

2. It follows that pronouns are more general than nouns. Any person, or even an animal or a thing personified, may use _I_ when referring to himself, _you_ when referring to the one addressed, and _he_, _she_, _it_, and _they_ when referring to the person or persons, the thing or things, spoken of--and all creatures and things, except the speaker and the one spoken to, fall into the last list. Some pronouns are so general, and hence so vague, in their denotement that they show the speaker's complete ignorance of the objects they denote. In, _Who_ did it? _Which_ of them did you see? the questioner is trying to find out the one for whom _Who_ stands, and the person or thing that _Which_ denotes. To what does _it_ refer in, _it_ rains; How is _it_ with you?

3. Some pronouns stand for a phrase, a clause, or a sentence, going before or coming after. _To be_ or _not to be_--_that_ is the question. _It_ is doubtful _whether the North Pole will ever be reached_. _The sails turned, the corn was ground_, after _which_ the wind ceased. _Ought you to go_? I cannot answer _that_. In the first of these sentences, _that_ stands for a phrase; in the last, for a sentence. _It_ and _which_ in the second and third sentences stand for clauses.

4. _Which_, retaining its office as connective, may as an adjective accompany its noun; as, I craved his forbearance a little longer, _which forbearance_ he allowed me.]

+A _Personal Pronoun_ is a pronoun that by its form denotes the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of+.

+A _Relative Pronoun_ is one that relates to some preceding word or words and connects clauses+.

+An _Interrogative Pronoun_ is one with which a question is asked+.

+An _Adjective Pronoun_ is one that performs the offices of both an adjective and a noun+.

The simple personal pronouns are:--_I, thou, you, he, she, and it_.

The compound personal pronouns are:--_Myself, thyself, yourself, himself, herself, and itself_.

The simple relative pronouns are:--_Who, which, that_, and _what_. [Footnote: _As_, in such sentences as this: Give such things _as_ you can spare, may be treated as a relative pronoun. But by expanding the sentence _as_ is seen to be a conjunctive adverb--Give such things _as those are which_ you can spare.

_But_ used after a negative is sometimes called a "negative relative" = _that not_; as, There is not a man here _but_ would die for such a cause. When the sentence is expanded, _but_ is found to be a preposition--There is not a man here _but_ (= _except_) the one who would die, etc.]

The compound relative pronouns are:--

_Whoever or whosoever, whichever_ or _whichsoever_, _whatever_ or _whatsoever_.

The interrogative pronouns are:--

_Who, which_, and _what_.

Some of the more common adjective pronouns are:--

All, another, any, both, each, either, enough, few, former, latter, little, many, much, neither, none, one, other, same, several, such, that, these, this, those, whole, etc. [Footnote: The adjective pronouns _this, that, these_, and _those_ are called +Demonstrative+ pronouns. _All, any, both, each, either, many, one, other_, etc. are called +Indefinite+ pronouns because they do not point out and particularize like the demonstratives. _Each, either_, and _neither_ are also called +Distributives+.

But for the fact that such words as _brave, good_, etc. in the phrases _the brave_, _the good_, etc. describe--which pronouns never do--we might call them adjective pronouns. They may be treated as nouns, or as adjectives modifying nouns to be supplied.

Some adjectives preceded by _the_ are abstract nouns; as, the _grand_, the _sublime_, the _beautiful_.]

The word, phrase, or clause in the place of which a pronoun is used is called an +Antecedent+.

+Direction+.--_Point out the pronouns and their antecedents in these sentences_:--

Jack was rude to Tom, and always knocked off his hat when he met him. To lie is cowardly, and every boy should know it. Daniel and his companions were fed on pulse, which was to their advantage. To lie is to be a coward, which one should scorn to be. To sleep soundly, which is a blessing, is to repair and renew the body.

+Remark+.--When the interrogatives _who_, _which_, and what introduce indirect questions, it is not always easy to distinguish them from relatives whose antecedents are omitted. For example--I found _who_ called and _what_ he wanted; I saw _what_ was done. The first sentence does not mean, I found the _person who_ called and the _thing that_ he wanted. "_Who_ called" and "_what_ he wanted" here suggest questions--questions referred to but not directly asked. I saw _what_ was done = I saw the _thing that_ was done. No question is suggested.

It should be remembered that _which_ and _what_ may also be interrogative adjectives; as, _Which_ side won? _What_ news have you?

+Direction+.--_Analyze these sentences, and parse all the pronouns_:--

1. Who steals my purse steals trash. 2. I myself know who stole my purse. 3. They knew whose house was robbed. 4. He heard what was said. 5. You have guessed which belongs to me. 6. Whom the gods would destroy they first make mad. 7. What was said, and who said it? 8. It is not known to whom the honor belongs. 9. She saw one of them, but she cannot positively tell which. 10. Whatever is done must be done quickly.

* * * * *

LESSON 86.

CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS.

TO THE TEACHER.--In the recitation of all Lessons containing errors for correction, the pupils' books should be closed, and the examples should be read by you. To insure care in preparation, and close attention in the class, read some of the examples in their correct form. Require specific reasons.

+Caution+.--Avoid _he_, _it_, _they_, or any other pronoun when its reference to an antecedent would not be clear. Repeat the noun instead, quote the speaker's exact words, or recast the sentence.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and relieve these sentences of their ambiguity_:--

+Model+.--The lad cannot leave his father; for, if he should leave _him_, _he_ would die = The lad cannot leave his father; for, if he should leave _his father, his father_ would die. Lysias promised his father never to abandon _his_ friends = Lysias gave his father this promise: "I will never abandon _your_ (or _my_) friends."

1. Dr. Prideaux says that, when he took his commentary to the bookseller, he told him it was a dry subject. 2. He said to his friend that, if he did not feel better soon, he thought he had better go home.

(This sentence may have four meanings. Give them all, using what you may suppose were the speaker's words.)

3. A tried to see B in the crowd, but could not because he was so short. 4. Charles's duplicity was fully made known to Cromwell by a letter of his to his wife, which he intercepted. 5. The farmer told the lawyer that his bull had gored his ox, and that it was but fair that he should pay him for his loss.

+Caution+.--Do not use pronouns needlessly.

+Direction+.--_Write, these sentences, omitting needless pronouns_:--

1. It isn't true what he said. 2. The father he died, the mother she followed, and the children they were taken sick. 3. The cat it mewed, and the dogs they barked, and the man he shouted. 4. Let every one turn from his or her evil ways. 5. Napoleon, Waterloo having been lost, he gave himself up to the English.

+Caution+.--In addressing a person, do not, in the same sentence, use the two styles of the pronoun.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. Thou art sad, have you heard bad news? 2. You cannot always have thy way. 3. Bestow thou upon us your blessing. 4. Love thyself last, and others will love you.

+Caution+.--The pronoun _them_ should not be used for the adjective _those_, nor the pronoun _what_ for the conjunction _that_. [Footnote: _What_ properly introduces a noun clause expressing a direct or an indirect question, but a declarative noun clause is introduced by the conjunction _that_. _But_ may be placed before this conjunction to give a negative force to the noun clause.

This use of _but_ requires careful discrimination. For example--"I have no fear _that_ he will do it"; "I have no fear _but that_ he will do it." The former indicates certainty that he will not do it, and the latter certainty that he will do it. "No one doubts but that he will do it" is incorrect, for it contains three negatives--_no_, _doubts_, and _but_. Two negatives may be used to affirm, but not three. The intended meaning is, "_No_ one _doubts_ that he will do it," or "_No_ one believes _but_ that he will do it," or "Every one _believes_ that he will do it."

_But what_, for _but that_ or _but_, is also incorrectly used to connect an adverb clause; as, "He is not so bad _but what_ he might be worse." For this office of _but_ or _but that_ in an adverb clause, see Lesson 109, fourth "Example" of the uses of _but_.]

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. Hand me them things. 2. Who knows but what we may fail? 3. I cannot believe but what I shall see them men again. 4. We ought to have a great regard for them that are wise and good.

+Caution+.--The relative _who_ should always represent persons; _which_, brute animals and inanimate things; _that_, persons, animals, and things; and _what_, things. The antecedent of _what_ should not be expressed.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. Those which say so are mistaken. 2. He has some friends which I know. 3. He told that what he knew. 4. The dog who was called Fido went mad. 5. The lion whom they were exhibiting broke loose. 6. All what he saw he described. 7. The horse whom Alexander rode was named Bucephalus.

+Direction+.--_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these five Cautions_.

LESSON 87.

CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS--CONTINUED.

+Caution+.--Several connected relative clauses relating to the same antecedent require the same relative pronoun.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. It was Joseph that was sold into Egypt, who became governor of the land, and which saved his father and brothers from famine. 2. He who lives, that moves, and who has his being in God should not forget him. 3. This is the horse which started first, and that reached the stand last. 4. The man that fell overboard, and who was drowned was the first mate.

+Caution+.--When the relative clause is not restrictive, [Footnote: See Lesson 61.] _who_ or _which_, and not _that_, is generally used.

+Example+.--Water, _which_ is composed of hydrogen and oxygen, covers three-fourths of the earth's surface.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. The earth is enveloped by an ocean of air, that is a compound of oxygen. and nitrogen. 2. Longfellow, that is the most popular American poet, has written beautiful prose. 3. Time, that is a precious gift, should not be wasted. 4. Man, that is born of woman, is of few days and full of trouble.

+Caution+.--The relative _that_ [Footnote: _That_ is almost always restrictive. However desirable it may seem to confine _who_ and _which_ to unrestrictive clauses, they are not confined to them in actual practice.

The wide use of _who_ and _which_ in restrictive clauses is not accounted for by saying that they occur after _this_, _these_, _those_, and _that_, and hence are used to avoid disagreeable repetitions of sounds. This may frequently be the reason for employing _who_ and _which_ in restrictive clauses; but usage authorizes us to affirm (1) that _who_ and _which_ stand in such clauses oftener without, than with, _this_, _these_, _those_, or _that_ preceding them, and (2) that they so stand oftener than _that_ itself does. Especially may this be said of _which_.] should be used instead of _who_ or _which_ (1) when the antecedent names both persons and things; (2) when _that_ would prevent ambiguity; and (3) when it would sound better than _who_ or _which_, _e. g._, after _that_, _same_, _very_, _all_, the interrogative _who_, the indefinite _it_, and adjectives expressing quality in the highest degree.

+Example+.--He lived near a _pond that_ was a nuisance. (_That_ relates to _pond_--the pond was a nuisance. _Which_ might have, for its antecedent, _pond_, or the whole clause _He lived near a pond_; and so its use here would be ambiguous.)

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. The wisest men who ever lived made mistakes. 2. The chief material which is used now in building is brick. 3. Who who saw him did not pity him? 4. He is the very man whom we want. 5. He is the same who he has ever been. 6. He sent his boy to a school which did him good. 7. All who knew him respected him. 8. It was not I who did it. 9. That man that you just met is my friend.

+Caution+.--The relative clause should be placed as near as possible to the word which it modifies.

+Direction+.--_Correct these errors_:--

1. The pupil will receive a reward from his teacher who is diligent. 2. Her hair hung in ringlets, which was dark and glossy. 3. A dog was found in the street that wore a brass collar. 4. A purse was picked up by a boy that was made of leather. 5. Claudius was canonized among the gods, who scarcely deserved the name of man. 6. He should not keep a horse that cannot ride.

+Caution+.--When _this_ and _that_, _these_ and _those_, _the one_ and _the other_ refer to things previously mentioned, _this_ and _these_ refer to the last mentioned, and _that_ and _those_ to the first mentioned; _the one_ refers to the first mentioned, and _the other_ to the last mentioned. When there is danger of obscurity, repeat the nouns.

+Examples+.--_High_ and _tall_ are synonyms: _this_ may be used in speaking of what grows--a tree; _that_, in speaking of what does not grow--a mountain. Homer was a genius; Virgil, an artist: in _the one_ we most admire the man; in _the other_, the work.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. Talent speaks learnedly at the bar; tact, triumphantly: this is complimented by the bench; that gets the fees. 2. Charles XII. and Peter the Great were sovereigns: the one was loved by his people; the other was hated. 3. The selfish and the benevolent are found in every community; these are shunned, while those are sought after.

+Direction+.--_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these five Cautions_.

* * * * *

LESSON 88.

CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS--CONTINUED.

Miscellaneous Errors.

+Direction+.--_Give the Cautions which these sentences violate, and correct the errors_:--

1. He who does all which he can does enough. 2. John's father died before he was born. 3. Whales are the largest animals which swim. 4. Boys who study hard, and that study wisely make progress. 5. There are miners that live below ground, and who seldom see the light. 6. He did that what was right. 7. General Lee, that served under Washington, had been a British officer. 8. A man should sit down and count the cost who is about to build a house. 9. They need no spectacles that are blind. 10. They buy no books who are not able to read. 11. Cotton, that is a plant, is woven into cloth. 12. Do you know that gentleman that is speaking? 13. There is no book which, when we look through it sharply, we cannot find mistakes in it. 14. The reporter which said that was deceived. 15. The diamond, that is pure carbon, is a brilliant gem. 16. The brakemen and the cattle which were on the train were killed. 17. _Reputation_ and _character_ do not mean the same thing: the one denotes what we are; the other, what we are thought to be.

18. Kosciusko having come to this country, he aided us in our Revolutionary struggle. 19. What pleased me much, and which was spoken of by others, was the general appearance of the class. 20. There are many boys whose fathers and mothers died when they were infants. 21. Witness said that his wife's father came to his house, and he ordered him out, but he refused to go. 22. Shall you be able to sell them boots? 23. I don't know but what I may. 24. Beer and wine are favorite drinks abroad: the one is made from grapes; the other, from barley. 25. There is one marked difference between shiners and trout; these have scales, and those have not. 26. They know little of men, who reason thus. 27. Help thyself, and Heaven will help you.

* * * * *

LESSON 89.

CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES.

+Introductory Hints+.--You learned in Lesson 12 that, in the sentences _Ripe apples are healthful, Unripe apples are hurtful_, the adjectives _ripe_ and _unripe_ limit, or narrow, the application of _apples_ by describing, or by expressing certain qualities of the fruit. You learned also that _the_, _this_, _an_, _no_, _some_, and _many_ limit, or narrow, the application of any noun which they modify, as _apple_ or _apples_, by pointing out the particular fruit, by numbering it, or by denoting the quantity of it.

Adjectives which limit by expressing quality are called +Descriptive Adjectives+; and those which limit by pointing out, numbering, or denoting quantity are called +Definitive Adjectives+.

Adjectives modifying a noun do not limit, or narrow, its application (1) when they denote qualities that always belong to the thing named; as, _yellow_ gold, the _good_ God, the _blue_ sky; or (2) when they are attribute complements, denoting qualities asserted by the verb; as, The fields were _green_; The ground was _dry_ and _hard_.

+DEFINITIONS+.

+An _Adjective_ is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun+.[Footnote: Pronouns, like nouns, are often modified by an "appositive" adjective, that is, an adjective joined loosely without restricting: thus--_Faint_ and _weary_, _he_ struggled on or, _He_, _faint_ and _weary_, struggled on. Adjectives that complete the predicate belong as freely to pronouns as to nouns.]

+A _Descriptive Adjective_ is one that modifies by expressing quality+.

+A _Definitive Adjective_ is one that modifies by pointing out, numbering, or denoting quantity+.[Footnote: The definitive adjectives _one_, _two_, _three_, etc.; _first_, _second_, _third_, etc. are called +Numeral+ adjectives. _One_, _two_, _three_, etc. are called +Cardinal+ numerals; and _first_, _second_, _third_--etc. are called +Ordinal+ numerals]

The definitive adjectives _an_ or _a_ and _the_ are commonly called +Articles+. _An_ or _a_ is called the _Indefinite Article_, and _the_ is called the _Definite Article_.

A noun may take the place of an adjective.

+Examples+.--_London_ journals, the _New York_ press, _silver_ spoons, _diamond_ pin, _state_ papers, _gold_ bracelet.

+Direction+.--_Point out the descriptive and the definitive adjectives below, and name such as do not limit_:--

Able statesmen, much rain, ten mice, brass kettle, small grains, Mansard roof, some feeling, all men, hundredth anniversary, the Pitt diamond, the patient Hannibal, little thread, crushing argument, moving spectacle, the martyr president, tin pans, few people, less trouble, this toy, any book, brave Washington, Washington market, three cats, slender cord, that libel, happy children, the broad Atlantic, The huge clouds were dark and threatening, Eyes are bright, What name was given? Which book is wanted?

+Direction+.--_Point out the descriptive and the definitive adjectives in Lessons 80 and 81, and tell whether they denote color, motion, shape, position, size, moral qualities, or whether they modify in some other way_.

* * * * *

LESSON 90.

CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES.

+Caution+.--_An_ and _a_ are different forms of _one_. _An_ is used before vowel sounds. For the sake of euphony, _an_ drops _n_ and becomes _a_ before consonant sounds.[Footnote: Some writers still use _an_ before words beginning with unaccented _h_; as, _an historian_.]

+Examples+.--_An_ inkstand, _a_ bag, _a_ historian, _a_ humble petition, _an_ hour (_h_ is silent), _a_ unit (_unit_ begins with the consonant sound of _y_), such _a_ one (_one_ begins with the consonant sound of _w_). +Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

A heir, a inheritance, an hook, an ewer, an usurper, a account, an uniform, an hundred, a umpire, an hard apple, an hero.

+Caution.+--_An_ or _a_ is used to limit a noun to one thing of a class--to any one. _The_ is used to distinguish (1) one thing or several things from others, and (2) one class of things from other classes.

+Explanation.+--We can say _a horse_, meaning _any one horse_; but we cannot say, _A gold_ is heavy, This is a poor kind of a _gas_, William Pitt received the title of _an earl_ because _gold, gas,_ and _earl_ are here meant to denote each the whole of a class, and a limits its noun to one thing of a class.

_The horse_ or _the horses_ must be turned into _the lot_. Here _the_ before _horse_ distinguishes a certain animal, and the before horses distinguishes certain animals, from others of the same class; and _the_ before _lot_ distinguishes the field from the yard or the stable--things in other classes. _The horse_ is a noble animal. Here _the_ distinguishes _this class_ of animals from other classes. But we cannot say, _The man_ (meaning the race) is mortal, _The anger_ is a short madness, _The truth_ is eternal, _The poetry_ and _the painting_ are fine arts, because _man, anger, truth, poetry,_ and _painting_ are used in their widest sense, and name things that are sufficiently distinguished without _the_.

+Direction.+--_Study the Caution as explained, and correct these errors_:--

1. This is another kind of a sentence. 2. Churchill received the title of a duke. 3. A _hill_ is from the same root as _column_. 4. Dog is a quadruped. 5. I expected some such an offer. 6. The woman is the equal of man. 7. The sculpture is a fine art. 8. Unicorn is kind of a rhinoceros. 9. Oak is harder than the maple.

+Caution.+--Use _an_, _a_, or _the_ before _each_ of two or more connected adjectives, when these adjectives modify different nouns, expressed or understood; but, when they modify the same noun, the article should not be repeated.

+Explanation+.--_A cotton and a silk umbrella_ means two umbrellas--one cotton and the other silk; the word umbrella is understood after _cotton_. _A cotton and silk umbrella_ means one umbrella partly cotton and partly silk; _cotton_ and _silk_ modify the same noun--_umbrella_. _The wise and the good_ means two classes; _the wise and good_ means one class.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution as explained, and correct these errors_:--

1. The Northern and Southern Hemisphere. 2. The Northern and the Southern Hemispheres. 3. The right and left hand. 4. A Pullman and Wagner sleeping-coach. 5. The fourth and the fifth verses. 6. The fourth and fifth verse. 7. A Webster's and Worcester's dictionary.

+Caution+.--Use _an_, _a_, or _the_ before each of two or more connected nouns denoting things that are to be distinguished from each other or emphasized.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. There is a difference between the sin and sinner. 2. We criticise not the dress but address of the speaker. 3. A noun and pronoun are alike in office. 4. Distinguish carefully between an adjective and adverb. 5. The lion, as well as tiger, belongs to the cat tribe. 6. Neither the North Pole nor South Pole has yet been reached. 7. The secretary and treasurer were both absent.

(_The secretary and treasurer was absent_--referring to one person--is correct.)

+Caution+.--_A few_ and _a little_ mean _some_ as opposed to _none_; _few_ means _not many_, and _little_ means _not much_.

+Examples+.--He saved _a few_ things and _a little_ money from the wreck. _Few_ shall part where many meet. _Little_ was said or done about it.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. There are a few pleasant days in March, because it is a stormy month. 2. He saved a little from the fire, as it broke out in the night. 3. Few men live to be & hundred years old, but not many. 4. Little can be done, but not much.

+Direction+.--_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these Cautions_.

* * * * *

LESSON 91.

CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES--CONTINUED.

+Caution+.--Choose apt adjectives, but do not use them needlessly; avoid such as repeat the idea or exaggerate it.

+Remark+.--The following adjectives are obviously needless: _Good_ virtues, _verdant_ green, _painful_ toothache, _umbrageous_ shade.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution carefully, and correct these errors_:--

1. It was splendid fun. 2. It was a tremendous dew. 3. He used less words than the other speaker. 4. The lad was neither docile nor teachable. 5. The belief in immortality is common and universal. 6. It was a gorgeous apple. 7. The arm-chair was roomy and capacious. 8. It was a lovely bun, but I paid a frightful price for it.

+Caution+.--So place adjectives that there can be no doubt as to what you intend them to modify. If those forming a series are of different rank, place nearest the noun the one most closely modifying it. If they are of the same rank, place them where they will sound best--generally in the order of length, the shortest first.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. A new bottle of wine. 2. The house was comfortable and large. 3. A salt barrel of pork. 4. It was a blue soft beautiful sky. 5. A fried dish of bacon. 6. We saw in the distance a precipitous, barren, towering mountain. 7. Two gray fiery little eyes. 8. A docile and mild pupil. 9. A pupil, docile and mild.

+Direction+.--_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these two Cautions_.

Miscellaneous Errors.

+Direction+.--_Give the Cautions which these expressions violate, and correct the errors_:--

1. I can bear the heat of summer, but not cold of winter. 2. The North and South Pole. 3. The eldest son of a duke is called _a marquis_. 4. He had deceived me, and so I had a little faith in him. 5. An old and young man. 6. A prodigious snowball hit my cheek. 7. The evil is intolerable and not to be borne. 8. The fat, two lazy men. 9. His penmanship is fearful. 10. A white and red flag were flying. 11. His unusual, unexpected, and extraordinary success surprised him. 12. He wanted a apple, an hard apple. 13. A dried box of herrings. 14. He received a honor. 15. Such an use! 16. The day was delightful and warm. 17. Samuel Adams's habits were unostentatious, frugal, and simple. 18. The victory was complete, though a few of the enemy were killed or captured. 19. The truth is mighty and will prevail. 20. The scepter, the miter, and coronet seem to me poor things for great men to contend for. 21. A few can swim across the Straits of Dover, for the width is great and the current strong. 22. I have a contemptible opinion of you. 23. She has less friends than I.

LESSON 92.

CLASSES OF VERBS AND ADVERBS.

+Introductory Hints+.--You learned in Lesson 28 that in saying _Washington captured_ we do not fully express the act performed. Adding _Cornwallis_, we complete the predicate by naming the one that receives the act that passes over from the doer. _Transitive_ means _passing over_, and so all verbs that represent an act as passing over from a doer to a receiver are called +Transitive Verbs+. If we say _Cornwallis was captured by Washington_, the verb is still transitive; but the object, _Cornwallis_, which names the receiver, is here the subject of the sentence, and not, as before, the object complement. You see that the object, the word that names the receiver of the act, may be the subject, or it may be the object complement.

All verbs that, like _fall_ in _Leaves fall_, do not represent the act as passing over to a receiver, and all that express mere being or state of being are called +Intransitive Verbs+.

A verb transitive in one sentence; as, He _writes_ good English, may be intransitive in another; as, He _writes_ well--meaning simply He _is_ a good _writer_. A verb is transitive only when an object is expressed or obviously understood.

_Washington captured Cornwallis_. Here _captured_ represents the act as having taken place in past time. _Tense_ means _time_, and hence this verb is in the past tense. _Cornwallis captured, the war speedily closed_. Here _captured_ is, as you have learned, a participle; and, representing the act as past at the time indicated by _closed_, it is a past participle. Notice that _ed_ is added to _capture_ (final _e_ is always dropped when _ed_ is added) to form its past tense and its past participle. All verbs that form the past tense and the past participle by adding _ed_ to the present are called +Regular Verbs+.

All verbs that do not form the past tense and the past participle by adding _ed_ to the present; as, _fall, fell, fallen; go, went, gone_, are called +Irregular Verbs+.

_Early, hereafter, now, often, soon, presently_, etc., used to modify any verb--as, _will go_ in, I _will go soon_--by expressing time, are called +Adverbs of Time+.

_Away, back, elsewhere, hence, out, within_, etc., used to modify any verb--as, _will go_ in, I _will go away_--by expressing direction or place, are called +Adverbs of Place+.

_Exceedingly, hardly, quite, sufficiently, too, very_, etc., used to modify a word--as the adjective _hot_ in, The tea is _very hot_--by expressing degree, are called +Adverbs of Degree+.

_Plainly, so, thus, well, not_, [Footnote: It may be worth remarking that while there are many negative nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, and conjunctions in oar language, negation is more frequently expressed in English by the adverb than by any other part of speech--than by all other parts of speech. A very large per cent of these adverbs modify the verb. That is to say, it is largely through the adverb that what the predicate expresses is declared not to be true of the thing named by the subject. It is very suggestive that much of what is said consists of denial--is taken up in telling not what is true of things but what is not true of them.

"The negative particle in our language is simply the consonant +n+. In Saxon it existed as a word +ne+; but we have lost that word, and it is now a letter only, which, enters into many words, as into _no, not, nought, none, neither, nor, never_."--_Earle_.

_No_ and _yes_ (_nay_ and _yea_), when used to answer Questions, show how the thought presented is regarded, and may therefore be classed with adverbs of manner. They are sometimes called _independent adverbs_. They seem to modify words omitted in the answer but contained in the question; as, Did you see him? _No_ = I did _no_ (_not_) see him; Will you go? _Yes_. The force of _yes_ may be illustrated by substituting _certainly_--Will you go? _Certainly_. _Certainly_ I will go, or I will _certainly_ go. As _no_ and _yes_ represent or suggest complete answers, they may be called +sentence-words+.] etc., used to modify a word--as, _spoke_ in, He _spoke plainly_--by expressing manner, are called +Adverbs of Manner+.

_Hence, therefore, why_, etc., used in making an inference or in expressing cause--as, It is dark, _hence_, or _therefore_, the sun is down; _Why_ is it dark?--are called +Adverbs of Cause+.

Some adverbs fall into more than one class; as, _so_ and _as_.

Some adverbs, as you have learned, connect clauses, and are therefore called +Conjunctive Adverbs+.

DEFINITIONS.

+A _Verb_ is a word that asserts action, being, or state of being+.

CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO MEANING.

+A _Transitive Verb_ is one that requires an object+. [Footnote: The +object+ of a transitive verb, that is, the name of the receiver of the action, may be the +object complement+, or it may be the +subject+; as, Brutus stabbed _Caesar_; _Caesar_ was stabbed by Brutus. See page 187.]

+An _Intransitive Verb_ is one that does not require an object+.

CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO FORM.

+A _Regular Verb_ is one that forms its past tense and past participle by adding _ed_ to the present+.

+An _Irregular Verb_ is one that does not form its past tense and past participle by adding _ed_ to the present+.

+An _Adverb_ is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. [Footnote: Adverbs have several exceptional uses. They may be used independently; as, _Now, there_ must be an error here. They may modify a phrase or a preposition; as, He came _just_ in time; It went _far_ beyond the mark. They may modify a clause or a sentence; as, He let go _simply_ because he was exhausted; _Certainly_ you may go.

It may also be noted here that adverbs are used interrogatively; as, _How, when_, and _where_ is this to be done? and that they may add to the office of the adverb that of the conjunction; as, I go _where_ I am sent.]

CLASSES OF ADVERBS.

+_Adverbs of Time_ are those that generally answer the question+, _When?_

+_Adverbs of Place_ are those that generally answer the question+, _Where?_

+_Adverbs of Degree_ are those that generally answer the question+, _To what extent?_

+_Adverbs of Manner_ are those that generally answer the question+, _In what way?_

+_Adverbs of Cause_ are those that generally answer the question+, _Why?_

+Direction+.--_Point out the transitive and the intransitive, the regular and the irregular verbs in Lesson_ 14, _and classify the adverbs_.

* * * * *

LESSON 93.

CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS.

+Caution+.--Choose apt adverbs, but do not use them needlessly or instead of other forms of expression; avoid such as repeat the idea or exaggerate it.

+Examples+.--I could _ill_ (not _illy_) afford the time. Do _as_ (not _like_) I do. A diphthong is _the union of_ two vowels (not _where_ or _when_ two vowels unite) in the same syllable. _This_ (not _this here_ or _this 'ere_) sentence is correct. He wrote _that_ (not _how that_) he had been sick. The belief in immortality is _universally_ held (not _universally_ held _everywhere_). His nose was _very_ (not _terribly_ or _frightfully_) red,

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors_.--

1. I returned back here yesterday. 2. He had not hardly a minute to spare. 3. The affair was settled amicably, peaceably, and peacefully. 4. It was awfully amusing. 5. This 'ere knife is dull. 6. That 'ere horse has the heaves. 7. A direct quotation is when the exact words of another are copied. 8. I do not like too much sugar in my tea. 9. He seldom or ever went home sober. 10. The belief in immortality is universally held by all. 11. I am dreadfully glad to hear that. 12. This is a fearfully long lesson. 13. He said how that he would go.

+Caution+.--So place adverbs that there can be no doubt as to what you intend them to modify. Have regard to the sound also. They seldom stand between _to_ and the infinitive. [Footnote: Instances of the "cleft, or split, infinitive"--the infinitive separated from its _to_ by an intervening adverb--are found in Early English and in English all the way down, Fitzedward Hall and others have shown this.

But there can be no question that usage is overwhelmingly against an adverb's standing between _to_ and the infinitive. Few writers ever place an adverb there at all; and these few, only an occasional adverb, and that adverb only occasionally.

Whether the adverb should be placed before the _to_ or after the infinitive is often a nice question, sometimes to be determined by the ear alone. It should never stand, however, where it would leave the meaning ambiguous or in any way obscure.]

+Examples+.--_I only_ rowed across the river = _I only_ (= _alone_, an adjective), and no one else, rowed etc., or = I _only rowed_ etc., +but+ did not _swim_ or _wade_. I rowed _only across_ the river = _across_, not _up_ or _down_ etc. I rowed across the _river only_ = the _river only_, not the _bay_ etc. _Merely to see_ (not _to merely see_) her was sufficient. _Not every collegian_ is a scholar (not _Every collegian_ is _not_ a scholar).

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors_:--

1. I have thought of marrying often. 2. We only eat three meals a day. 3. He hopes to rapidly recruit. 4. All is not gold that glitters. 5. He tries to distinctly speak. 6. He tries distinctly to speak. 7. All that glitters is not gold. 8. His sagacity almost appears miraculous.

+Caution+.--Unless you wish to affirm, do not use two negative words so that they shall contradict each other. [Footnote: _Not in_frequently we use two negatives to make an affirmation; as, He is _not un_just; _No_ man can do _nothing_.]

+Examples+.--No one _has_ (not _hasn't_) yet reached the North Pole. _No un_pleasant circumstance happened (proper, because it is intended to affirm).

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors_:--

1. No other reason can never be given. 2. He doesn't do nothing. 3. He isn't improving much, I don't think. 4. There must be something wrong when children do not love neither father nor mother. 5. He isn't no sneak. 6. Charlie Ross can't nowhere be found.

+Caution+.--Do not use adverbs for adjectives or adjectives for adverbs.

+Examples+.--The moon looks _calm_ and _peaceful_ (not _calmly_ and _peacefully_, as the words are intended to describe the moon). The moon looks down _calmly_ and _peacefully_ on the battlefield (not _calm_ and _peaceful_, as the words are intended to tell how she performs the act). I slept _soundly_ (not _good_ or _sound_).

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors_:--

1. It was a softly blue sky. 2. The river runs rapid. 3. You must read more distinct. 4. It was an uncommon good harvest. 5. She is most sixteen. 6. The discussion waxed warmly. 7. The prima donna sings sweet. 8. She is miserable poor. 9. My head feels badly. 10. He spoke up prompt. 11. He went most there. 12. He behaved very bad. 13. This is a mighty cold day.

+Direction+.--_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these four Cautions_.

* * * * *

LESSON 94.

CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS-CONTINUED.

Miscellaneous Errors.

+Direction+.--_Give the Cautions which these sentences violate, and correct the errors_:--

1. Begin it over again. 2. This can be done easier. 3. The house is extra warm. 4. Most every one goes there. 5. I have a pencil that long. 6. He hasn't his lesson, I don't believe. 7. A circle can't in no way be squared. 8. This is a remarkable cold winter. 9. The one is as equally deserving as the other. 10. Feathers feel softly. 11. It is pretty near finished. 12. Verbosity is when too many words are used. 13. It is a wonderful fine day. 14. He is some better just now. 15. Generally every morning we went to the spring. 16. I wish to simply state this point. 17. He tried to not only injure but to also ruin the man. 18. The lesson was prodigiously long. 19. The cars will not stop at this station only when the bell rings. 20. He can do it as good as any one can. 21. Most everybody talks so. 22. He hasn't yet gone, I don't believe. 23. He behaved thoughtlessly, recklessly, and carelessly. 24. That 'ere book is readable. 25. I will not go but once. 26. I can't find out neither where the lesson begins nor where it ends. 27. They were nearly dressed alike. 28. The tortured man begged that they would kill him again and again. 29. The fortune was lavishly, profusely, and prodigally spent. 30. I am real glad to see you. 31. We publish all the information, official and otherwise.

LESSON 95.

PREPOSITIONS.

+DEFINITION.--A _Preposition_ is a word that introduces a phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the word modified.+

Composition.

+Direction+.--_We give below a list of the prepositions in common use. Make short sentences in which each of these shall be aptly used. Use two or three of them in a single sentence if you wish_:--

Aboard, about, above, across, after, against, along, amid, amidst, among, amongst, around, at, athwart, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, betwixt, beyond, but, by, down, ere, for, from, in, into, of, on, over, past, round, since, through, throughout, till, to, toward, towards, under, underneath, until, unto, up, upon, with, within, without.

+Remarks+.--_Bating_, _concerning_, _during_, _excepting_, _notwithstanding_, _pending_, _regarding_, _respecting_, _saving_, and _touching_ are still participles in form and sometimes are such in use. But in most cases the participial meaning has faded out of them, and they express mere relations.

_But_, _except_, and _save_, in such a sentence as, All _but_ or _except_ or _save him_ were lost, are usually classed with prepositions.

The phrases _aboard of_, _according to_, _along with_, _as to_, _because of_ (by cause of), _from among_, _from between_, _from under_, _instead of_ (in stead of), _out of_, _over against_, and _round about_ may be called compound prepositions. But _from_ in these compounds; as, He crawled _from under the ruins_, really introduces a phrase, the principal term of which is the phrase that follows _from_.

Many prepositions become adverbs when the noun which ordinarily follows them is omitted; as, He rode _past_; He stands _above_.

* * * * *

LESSON 96.

CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS.

+To the Teacher+.--Most prepositions express relations so diverse, and so delicate in their shades of distinction that a definition of them based upon etymology would mislead. A happy and discriminating use of prepositions can be acquired only by an extended study of good authors. We do below all that we think it prudent or profitable to do with them. He should he a man of wide and careful reading who assumes to teach pupils that such prepositions, and such only, should be used with certain words. Nowhere in grammar is dogmatism more dangerous than here. That grammarian exceeds his commission who marks out for the pupils' feet a path narrower than the highway which the usage of the best writers and speakers has cast up. [Footnote: Take a single illustration. Grammarians, in general, teach that _between_ and _betwixt_ "refer to two," are used "only when two things or sets of things are referred to." Ordinarily, and while clinging to their derivation, they are so used, but are they always, and must they be? "There was a hunting match agreed upon betwixt a lion, an ass, and a fox."-- _L'Estrange_. "A Triple Alliance between England, Holland, and Sweden."-- _J. B. Green_. "In the vacant space between Persia, Syria, Egypt, and Ethiopia."--_Gibbon_. "His flight between the several worlds."--_Addison_. "The identity of form between the nominative, accusative, and vocative cases in the neuter." --_G. P. Marsh_. "The distinction between these three orders has been well expressed by Prof. Max Mueller."--_W. D. Whitney_. "Between such dictionaries as Worcester's, The Imperial, and Webster's."-- _B. G. White_. "Betwixt the slender boughs came glimpses of her ivory neck."--_Bryant_. With what clumsy circumlocutions would our speech be filled if prepositions could never slip the leash of their etymology! What simple and graceful substitute could be found for the last phrase in this sentence, for instance: There were forty desks in the room with ample space _between them_?

"We observe that _between_ is not restricted to two."--_Imperial Dictionary_. "In all senses _between_ has been, from its earliest appearance, extended to more than two. It is still the only word available to express the relation of a thing to many surrounding things severally and individually--_among_ expressing a relation to them collectively and vaguely: we should not say, 'The choice lies among the three candidates,' or 'to insert a needle among the closed petals of a flower.'"--_The New English Dictionary_.

We have collected hundreds of instances of _between_ used by good writers with three or more.

Guard against such expressions as _between each_ page; a choice _between one_ of several.]

+Direction+.--_We give below a few words with the prepositions which usually accompany them. Form short sentences containing these words combined with each of the prepositions which follow them, and note carefully the different relations expressed by the different prepositions_:--

(Consult the dictionary for both the preposition and the accompanying word.)

Abide _at, by, with_; accommodate _to, with_; advantage _of, over_; agree _to, with_; angry _at, with_; anxious _about, for_; argue _against, with_; arrive _at, in_; attend _on_ or _upon, to_; careless _about, in, of_; communicate _to, with_; compare _to, with_; consists _in, of_; defend _against, from_; die _by, for, of_; different _from_; disappointed _in, of_; distinguish _by, from_; familiar _to, with_; impatient _for, of_; indulge _in, with_; influence _on, over, with_; insensible _of, to_; sat _beside_; many _besides_.

* * * * *

LESSON 97.

CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS--CONTINUED.

+Direction+.--_Do with the following words as with those above_:--

Inquire _after, for, into, of_; intrude _into, upon_; joined _to, with_; liberal _of, to_; live _at, in, on_; look _after, for, on_; need _of_; obliged _for, to_; part _from, with_; placed _in, on_; reconcile _to, with_; regard _for, to_; remonstrate _against, with_; sank _beneath, in, into_; share _in, of, with_; sit _in, on_ or _upon_; smile _at, on_; solicitous _about, for_; strive _for, with, against_; taste _for, of_; touch _at, on_ or _upon_; useful _for, in, to_; weary _of, in, with_; yearn _for, towards_.

* * * * *

LESSON 98.

CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS--CONTINUED.

+Caution+.--Great care must be used in the choice of prepositions.

+Direction+.--_Correct these errors_:--

1. This book is different to that. 2. He stays to home. 3. They two quarreled among each other. 4. He is in want for money. 5. I was followed with a crowd. 6. He fell from the bridge in the water. [Footnote: _In_ denotes motion or rest in a condition or place; _into_, change from one condition or place into another. "When one is outside of a place, he may be able to get _into_ it; but he cannot do anything _in_ it until he has got _into_ it."] 7. He fought into the Revolution. [See previous footnote] 8. He bears a close resemblance of his father. 9. He entered in the plot. 10. He lives at London. 11. He lives in the turn of the road. 12. I have need for a vacation. 13. The child died with the croup. 14. He took a walk, but was disappointed of it. 15. He did not take a walk; he was disappointed in it. 16. He was accused with felony. 17. School keeps upon Monday. 18. Place a mark between each leaf.

19. He is angry at his father. 20. He placed a letter into my hands. 21. She is angry with your conduct. 22. What is the matter of him? 23. I saw him over to the house. 24. These plants differ with each other. 25. He boards to the hotel. 26. I board in the hotel. 27. She stays at the North. 28. I have other reasons beside these. [Footnote: Beside = _by the side of_; besides = _in addition to_.] 29. You make no use with your talents. 30. He threw himself onto the bed. 31. The boys are hard to work. 32. He distributed the apples between his four brothers. 33. He went in the park. 34. You can confide on him. 35. He arrived to Toronto. 36. I agree with that plan. 37. The evening was spent by reading. 38. Can you accommodate me in one of those? 39. What a change a century has produced upon our country! 40. He stays to school late. 41. The year of the Restoration plunged Milton in bitter poverty. 42. The Colonies declared themselves independent from England. 43. I spent my Saturdays by going in the country, and enjoying myself by fishing.

* * * * *

LESSON 99.

CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS--CONTINUED.[Footnote: "A preposition is a feeble word to end a sentence _with_," we are told. Sentences (10) and (13), Lesson 59, (2), Lesson 60, and many in succeeding Lessons violate the rule so carelessly expressed.

Of this rule, laid down without regard to usage and thoughtlessly repeated, Prof. Austin Phelps says, "A preposition as such is by no means a feeble word;" and he quotes a burst of feeling from Rufus Choate which ends thus: "Never, so long as there is left of Plymouth Rock a piece large enough to make a gunflint _of_!" "This," Professor Phelps says, "is purest idiomatic English." He adds, "The old Scotch interrogative, 'What _for_?' is as pure English in written as in colloquial speech."

Sentences containing two prepositions before a noun are exceedingly common in English--"The language itself is inseparable _from_, or essentially a part _of_, the _thoughts_." Such sentences have been condemned, but the worst that can be urged against them is, that they lack smoothness. But smoothness is not always desirable.

Sentences containing a transitive verb and a preposition before a noun are very common--"Powerless to _affect_, or to be affected _by_, the _times_."]

CAUTION.--Do not use prepositions needlessly.

DIRECTION.--_Correct these errors_:--

1. I went there at about noon. 2. In what latitude is Boston in? 3. He came in for to have a talk. 4. I started a week ago from last Saturday. 5. He was born August 15, in 1834. 6. A good place to see a play is at Wallack's. 7. He went to home. 8. I was leading of a horse about. 9. By what states is Kentucky bounded by? 10. His servants ye are to whom ye obey. 11. Where are you going to? 12. They admitted of the fact. 13. Raise your book off of the table. 14. He took the poker from out of the fire. 15. Of what is the air composed of? 16. You can tell by trying of it. 17. Where have you been to? 18. The boy is like to his father. 19. They offered to him a chair. 20. This is the subject of which I intend to write about. 21. Butter brings twenty cents for a pound. 22. Give to me a knife. 23. I have a brother of five years old. 24. To what may Italy be likened to? 25. In about April the farmer puts in his seed. 26. Jack's favorite sport was in robbing orchards. 27. Before answering of you, I must think. 28. He lives near to the river. 29. Keep off of the grass.

+Caution+.--Do not omit prepositions when they are needed.

+Direction+.--_Correct these errors_:--

1. There is no use going there. 2. He is worthy our help. 3. I was prevented going. 4. He was banished the country. 5. He is unworthy our charity. 6. What use is this to him? 7. He was born on the 15th August, 1834. 8. Adam and Eve were expelled the garden. 9. It was the size of a pea. 10. Egypt is the west side of the Red Sea. 11. His efforts were not for the great, but the lowly. 12. He received dispatches from England and Russia.

+Direction+.--_Point out the prepositions in Lessons_ 80 _and_ 81, _and name the words between which, in sense, they show the relation_.

* * * * *

LESSON 100.

CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS AND OTHER CONNECTIVES.

+Introductory Hints+.--The stars look down upon the roofs of the living _and_ upon the graves of the dead, _but neither_ the living _nor_ the dead are conscious of their gaze. Here _and_, _but_, _neither_, and _nor_ connect words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank, or order, and so are called +Co-ordinate Conjunctions+. Both clauses may be independent, or both dependent but of equal rank.

At the burning of Moscow, it seemed _as_ [it would seem] _if_ the heavens were lighted up _that_ the nations might behold the scene. Here _as_, _if_, and _that_ connect each a lower, or subordinate, clause to a clause of higher rank, and hence are called +Subordinate Conjunctions+. One clause may be independent and the other dependent, or both dependent but of unequal rank.

+DEFINITIONS.+

+A _Conjunction_ is a word used to connect words, phrases, or clauses+. [Footnote: Some of the co-ordinate conjunctions, as _and_ and _but_, connect, in thought, sentences separated by the period, and even connect paragraphs. In analysis and parsing, we regard only the individual sentence and treat such connectives as introductory.]

+_Co-ordinate Conjunctions_ are such as connect words, phrases, or clauses of the same rank+.

+_Subordinate Conjunctions_ are such as connect clauses of different rank+.

+Remark+.--Some of the connectives below are conjunctions proper; some are relative pronouns; and some are adverbs or adverb phrases, which, in addition to their office as modifiers, may, in the absence of the conjunction, take its office upon themselves and connect the clauses.

To THE TEACHER.--We do not advise the memorizing of these lists. The pupils should he able to name the different groups, and some of the most common connectives of each group.

+Co-ordinate Connectives.+ [Footnote: +Copulative+ conjunctions join parts in the same line of thought; +Adversative+ conjunctions join parts contrasted or opposed in meaning; +Alternative+ conjunctions join parts so as to offer a choice or a denial. See Lesson 76.]

+Copulative+.--_And_, _both_ ... _and_, _as well as_ [Footnote: The _as well as_ in, _He, as well as I, went_; and not that in, _He is as well as I am_.] are conjunctions proper. _Accordingly_, _also_, _besides_, _consequently_, _furthermore_, _hence_, _likewise_, _moreover_, _now_, _so_, _then_, and _therefore_ are conjunctive adverbs.

+Adversative+.--_But_ and _whereas_ are conjunctions proper. _However_, _nevertheless_, _notwithstanding_, _on the contrary_, _on the other hand_, _still_, and _yet_ are conjunctive adverbs.

+Alternative+.--_Neither_, _nor_, _or_, _either_ ... _or_, and _neither_ ... _nor_ are conjunctions proper. _Else_ and _otherwise_ are conjunctive adverbs.

+Subordinate Connectives.+

CONNECTIVES OF ADJECTIVE CLAUSES.

_That_, _what_, _whatever_, _which_, _whichever_, _who_, and _whoever_ are relative pronouns. _When_, _where_, _whereby_, _wherein_, and _why_ are conjunctive adverbs.

CONNECTIVES OF ADVERB CLAUSES.

_Time_.--_After_, _as_, _before_, _ere_, _since_, _till_, _until_, _when_, _whenever_, _while_, and _whilst_ are conjunctive adverbs.

_Place_.--_Whence_, _where_, and _wherever _are conjunctive adverbs.

_Degree_.--_As_, _than_, _that_, and _the_ are conjunctive adverbs, correlative with adjectives or adverbs.

_Manner_.--_As_ is a conjunctive adverb, correlative, often, with an adjective or an adverb.

_Real Cause_.--_As_, _because_, _for_, _since_, and _whereas_ are conjunctions proper.

_Evidence_.--_Because_, _for_, and _since_ are conjunctions proper.

_Purpose_.--_In order that_, _lest_ (= _that not_), _that_, and _so that_ are conjunctions proper.

Condition.--Except, if, in case that, on condition that, provided, provided that, and unless are conjunctions proper.

_Concession_.--_Although_, _if_ (= _even if_), _notwithstanding_, _though_, and _whether_ are conjunctions proper. _However_ is a conjunctive adverb. _Whatever_, _whichever_, and _whoever_ are relative pronouns used indefinitely.

CONNECTIVES OF NOUN CLAUSES.

_If_, _lest_, _that_, and _whether_ [Footnote: Etymologically, _whether_ is restricted to two; but it has burst the bonds of its etymology and is very freely used with three or more.

The repetition of _whether_, like the use of it with three or more things, has been condemned, but usage allows us to repeat it.

_Whether or no_ is also allowed.] are conjunctions proper. _What_, _which_, and _who_ are pronouns introducing questions; and _how_, _when_, _whence_, _where_, and _why_ are conjunctive adverbs introducing questions.

+Direction+.--_Study the lists above_, _and point out all the connectives in Lessons_ 80 and 81, _telling which are relative pronouns_, _which are conjunctions proper_, _and which are conjunctive adverbs_.

+TO THE TEACHER+.--If the pupils lack maturity, or if it is found necessary to abridge this work in order to conform to a prescribed course of study, the six following Lessons may be omitted. The authors consider these exercises very profitable, but their omission will occasion no break in the course.

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LESSON 101.

COMPOSITION--CONNECTIVES.

+Direction+.--_Write twenty compound sentences whose clauses shall be joined by connectives named in the three subdivisions of co-ordinate connectives_.

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LESSON 102.

COMPOSITION--CONNECTIVES--CONTINUED.

+Direction+.--_Write twenty complex sentences whose clauses shall be joined by connectives of adjective clauses, and by connectives of adverb clauses of time, place, degree, and manner_.

* * * * *

LESSON 103.

COMPOSITION--CONNECTIVES--CONTINUED.

+Direction+.--_Write twenty complex sentences whose clauses shall be joined by connectives of adverb clauses of real cause, evidence, purpose, condition, and concession, and by connectives of noun clauses_.

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LESSON 104.

CONNECTIVES.

Analysis.

+Direction+.--_Tell what kinds of clauses follow the connectives below, and what are the usual connectives of such clauses, and then analyze the sentences_:--

+As+ may connect a clause expressing +manner+, +time+, +degree+, +cause+, or +evidence+.

1. Mount Marcy is not so high as Mount Washington. 2. As I passed by, I found an altar with this inscription. 3. It must be raining, as men are carrying umbrellas. 4. Ice floats, as water expands in freezing. 5. Half-learned lessons slip from the memory, as an icicle from the hand.

+If+ may connect a clause expressing +condition+, +time+, or +concession+, or it may introduce a +noun+ clause.

6. If a slave's lungs breathe our air, that moment he is free. 7. If wishes were horses, all beggars might ride.

8. Who knows if one of the Pleiads is really missing? [Footnote: Many grammarians say that _if_ here is improperly used for _whether_. But this use of _if_ is common with good authors in early and in modern English.]