1. Define the adjective and its classes.--Lesson 89.

1. Define the adjective and its classes.--Lesson 89.

2. Define comparison and the degrees of comparison.--Lesson 127.

3. Give and illustrate the regular method and the irregular methods of comparison.--Lesson 127.

4. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of adjectives.--Lessons 90, 91.

5. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of comparative and superlative forms.--Lesson 128.

Scheme for the Adverb.

ADVERB. Classes. Time. | Place. | Degree. + 92-94. Manner. | Cause. | Modification.--Comparison. Pos. Deg. | Comp. " + 127, 128. Sup. " |

Questions on the Adverb.

1. Define the adverb and its classes.--Lesson 92.

2. Illustrate the regular method and the irregular methods of comparison. --Lesson 127.

3. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of adverbs. --Lesson 93.

* * * * *

LESSON 129.

MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB.

VOICE.

+Introductory Hints+.--_He picked a rose. A rose was picked by him._ The same thing is here told in two ways. The first verb, _picked_, shows that the subject names the actor; the second verb, _was picked_, shows that the subject names the thing acted upon. These different forms and uses of the verb constitute the modification called +Voice+. The first form is in the +Active Voice+; the second is in the +Passive Voice+.

The active voice is used when the agent, or actor, is to be made prominent; the passive, when the thing acted upon is to be made prominent. The passive voice may be used when the agent is unknown, or when, for any reason, we do not care to name the agent; as, The _ship was wrecked; Money is coined_.

DEFINITIONS.

+_Voice_ is that modification of the transitive verb which shows whether the subject names the _actor_ or the thing _acted upon_+.

+The _Active Voice_ shows that the subject names the actor+.

+The _Passive Voice_ shows that the subject names the thing acted upon.+

The passive form is compound, and may be resolved into an asserting word (some form of the verb _be_) and an attribute complement (a past participle of a transitive verb). An expression consisting of an asserting word followed by an adjective complement or by a participle used adjectively may be mistaken for a verb in the passive voice.

+Examples.+--The coat _was_ sometimes _worn_ by Joseph (_was worn_-- passive voice). The coat _was_ badly _worn_ (_was_--incomplete predicate, _worn_--adjective complement).

+Remark.+--To test the passive voice note whether the one named by the subject is acted upon, and whether the verb may be followed by _by_ before the name of the agent without changing the sense.

+Direction.+---_Tell which of the following completed predicates may be treated as single verbs, and which should not be so treated:--_

1. The lady is accomplished. 2. This task was not accomplished in a day. 3. Are you prepared to recite? 4. Dinner was soon prepared. 5. A shadow was mistaken for a foot-bridge. 6. You are mistaken. 7. The man was drunk before the wine was drunk. 8. The house is situated on the bank of the river. 9. I am obliged to you. 10. I am obliged to do this. 11. The horse is tired. 12. A fool and his money are soon parted. 13. The tower is inclined. 14. My body is inclined by years.

+Direction.+--_Name all the transitive verbs in Lesson 78, and give their voice._

* * * * *

LESSON 130.

COMPOSITION--VOICE.

The +object complement+ of a verb in the +active voice+ becomes the +subject+ when the verb is changed to the +passive voice.+

+Example.+--The Danes invaded _England = England_ was invaded by the Danes.

+Remark.+--You will notice that in the first sentence the agent is made prominent; in the second sentence, the receiver.

+Direction.+--_In each of these sentences change the voice of the transitive verb without altering the meaning of the sentence, and note the other changes that occur:--_

1. Mercury, the messenger of the gods, wore a winged cap and winged shoes. 2. When the Saxons subdued the Britons, they introduced into England their own language, which was a dialect of the Teutonic, or Gothic. 3. My wife was chosen as her wedding dress was chosen, not for a fine, glossy surface, but for such qualities as would wear well. 4. Bacchus, the god of wine, was worshiped in many parts of Greece and Rome. 5. The minds of children are dressed by their parents as their bodies are dressed--in the prevailing fashion. 6. Harvey, an English physician, discovered that blood circulates. 7. The luxury of Capua, more powerful than the Roman legions, vanquished the victorious Carthaginians. 8. His eloquence had struck them dumb.

+Remark.+--Notice that the objective complement becomes the attribute complement when the verb is changed from the active to the passive voice.

9. That tribunal pronounced Charles a tyrant. 10. The town had nicknamed him Beau Seymour. 11. Even silent night proclaims my soul immortal. 12. We saw the storm approaching.

(Notice that the objective complement is here a participle.)

13. He kept his mother waiting. 14. We found him lying dead on the field. 15. We all believe him to be an honest man.

(Notice that the objective complement is here an infinitive phrase.)

16. Some, sunk to beasts, find pleasure end in pain. 17. Everybody acknowledged him to be a genius.

The +indirect,+ or _dative,_ +object+ is sometimes made the +subject+ of a verb in the passive voice, while the object complement is retained after the verb. [Footnote: Some grammarians condemn this construction. It is true that it is a violation of the general analogies, or laws, of language; but that it is an idiom of our language, established by good usage, is beyond controversy.

Concerning the parsing of the noun following this passive, there is difference of opinion. Some call it an adverbial modifier, some call it a "retained object," and some say that it is a noun without grammatical construction. In "I offered him money," _him_ represents the one to whom the act was directed, and _money_ names the thing directly acted upon. In "He was offered money," the relation of the act to the person and to the thing is not changed; _money_ still names the thing directly acted upon.]

+Example.+--The porter refused _him_ admittance = _He_ was refused _admittance_ by the porter.

+Direction.+--_Change the voice of the transitive verbs in these sentences, and note the other changes that occur:--_

18. They were refused the protection of the law. 19. He was offered a pension by the government. 20. I was asked that question yesterday. 21. He told me to leave the room.

+Explanation.+--Here the infinitive phrase is the object complement, and _(to) me_ is used adverbially. _To leave the room = that I should leave the room._

22. I taught the child to read. 23. I taught the child reading. 24. They told me that your name was Fontibell.

+Direction.+--_Change the following transitive verbs to the passive form, using first the regular and then the idiomatic construction_:--

+Model.+--_He promised me a present = A present was promised me_ (regular) = _I was promised a present_ (idiomatic).

25. They must allow us the privilege of thinking for ourselves. 26. He offered them their lives if they would abjure their religion.

An intransitive verb is sometimes made transitive by the aid of a preposition.

+Example.+--All his friends _laughed_ at him = He _was laughed at_ (ridiculed) by all his friends.

+Remark.+---_Was laughed at_ may be treated as one verb. Some grammarians, however, would call _at_ an adverb. The intransitive verb and preposition are together equivalent to a transitive verb in the passive voice.

+Direction.+--_Change the voice of the following verbs:--_

27. This artful fellow has imposed upon us all. 28. The speaker did not even touch upon this topic. 29. He dropped the matter there, and did not refer to it afterward.

+Remark.+--The following sentences present a peculiar idiomatic construction. A transitive verb which, in the active voice, is followed by an object complement and a prepositional phrase, takes, in the passive, the principal word of the phrase for its subject, retaining the complement and the preposition to complete its meaning; as, They _took care of it, It was taken care of._

+Direction.+--_Put the following sentences into several different forms, and determine which is the best:--_

30. His original purpose was lost sight of (forgotten). [Footnote: Some would parse _of_ as an adverb relating to _was lost,_ and _sight_ as a noun used adverbially to modify _was lost;_ others would treat _sight_ as an object [complement] of _was lost;_ others would call _was lost sight of_ a compound verb; and others, believing that the logical relation of these words is not lost by a change of position, analyze the expression as if arranged thus: _Sight of his original purpose was lost._] 31. Such talents should be made much of. 32. He was taken care of by his friends. 33. Some of his characters have been found fault with as insipid.

* * * * *

LESSON 131.

MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB--CONTINUED.

MODE, TENSE, NUMBER, AND PERSON.

+Introductory Hints.+--_James walks_. Here the walking is asserted as an actual fact. _James may walk._ Here the walking is asserted not as an actual, but as a possible, fact. _If James walk out, he will improve._ Here the walking is asserted only as thought of, without regard to its being or becoming either an actual or a possible fact. _James, walk out._ Here the walking is not asserted as a fact, but as a command--James is ordered to make it a fact. These different uses and forms of the verb constitute the modification which we call +Mode.+ The first verb is in the +Indicative Mode;+ the second in the +Potential Mode;+ the third in the +Subjunctive Mode;+ the fourth in the +Imperative Mode.+

For the two forms of the verb called the +Participle+ and the +Infinitive,+ see Lessons 37 and 40.

_I walk. I walked. I shall walk._ In these three sentences the manner of asserting the action is the same, but the time in which the action takes place is different. _Walk_ asserts the action as going on in present time, and, as +Tense+ means time, is in the +Present Tense.+ _Walked_ asserts the action as past, and is in the +Past Tense.+ _Shall walk_ asserts the action as future, and is in the +Future Tense.+

_I have walked out to-day. I had walked out when he called. I shall have walked out by to-morrow._ Have walked asserts the action as completed at the present, and is in the +Present Perfect Tense.+ _Had walked_ asserts the action as completed in the past, and is in the +Past Perfect Tense.+ _Shall have walked_ asserts action to be completed in the future, and is in the +Future Perfect Tense.+

_I walk. Thou walkest. He walks. They walk._ In the second sentence _walk_ is changed by adding +est+; in the third sentence, by adding +s.+ Verbs are said to agree in +Person+ and +Number+ with their subjects. But this agreement is not generally marked by a change in the form of the verb.

+DEFINITIONS+.

+_Mode_ is that modification of the verb which denotes the manner of asserting the action or being+.

+The _Indicative Mode_ asserts the action or being as a fact+. [Footnote: In "Are you going?" or "You are going?" a fact is referred to the hearer for his admission or denial. In "Who did it?" the fact that some person did it is asserted, and the hearer is requested to name the person. It will be seen that the Indicative Mode may be used in asking a question.]

+The _Potential Mode_ asserts the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity of acting or being+.

+The _Subjunctive Mode_ asserts the action or being as a mere condition, supposition, or wish+.

+The _Imperative Mode_ asserts the action or being as a command or an entreaty+.

+The _Infinitive_ is a form of the verb which names the action or being in a general way, without asserting it of anything+.

+The _Participle_ is a form of the verb partaking of the nature of an adjective or of a noun, and expressing the action or being as assumed+.

+The _Present Participle_ denotes action or being as continuing at the time indicated by the predicate+.

+The _Past Participle_ denotes action or being as past or completed at the time indicated by the predicate+.

+The _Past Perfect Participle_ denotes action or being as completed at a time previous to that indicated by the predicate+.

+_Tense_ is that modification of the verb which expresses the time of the action or being+.

+The _Present Tense_ expresses action or being as present+.

+The _Past Tense_ expresses action or being as past+.

+The _Future Tense_ expresses action or being as yet to come+.

+The _Present Perfect Tense_ expresses action or being as completed at the present time+.

+The _Past Perfect Tense_ expresses action or being as completed at some past time+.

+The _Future Perfect Tense _expresses action or being to be completed at some future time+.

+_Number _and _Person _of a verb are those modifications that show its agreement with the number and person of its subject+.

* * * * *

LESSON 132.

FORMS OF THE VERB.

CONJUGATION.

+DEFINITIONS+.

+_Conjugation_ is the regular arrangement of all the forms of the verb+.

+_Synopsis _is the regular arrangement of the forms of one number and person in all the modes and tenses+.

+_Auxiliary Verbs _are those that help in the conjugation of other verbs.+

The auxiliaries are _do, did, have, had, shall, should, will, would, may, might, can, could, must,_ and _be_ (with all its variations, see Lesson 135).

+The _Principal Parts_ of a verb, or those from which the other parts are derived, are the present indicative or the present infinitive, the past indicative, and the past participle.+

List of Irregular Verbs. [Footnote: Grammarians have classed verbs on the basis of their form or history as Strong (or Old) and Weak (or New).

Strong verbs form their past tense by changing the vowel of the present without adding anything; weak verbs form their past tense by adding _ed, d,_ or _t._ Some weak verbs change the vowel of the present; as, _tell, told; teach, taught._ These are weak because they add _d_ or _t._

Some weak verbs shorten the vowel of the present without adding anything; as, _feed, fed; lead, led;_ and some have the present and the past alike; as, _set, set; rid, rid._ They have dropped the past tense ending.

The past participle of all strong verbs once ended in _en_ or _n,_ but in many verbs this ending is now lost.

Since most verbs form their past tense and past participle by adding _ed,_ we call such Regular, and all others Irregular. Our irregular verbs include all strong verbs and those that may be called "irregular weak" verbs.

Of the _ed_ added to form the past tense of regular verbs, _d_ is what remains of _did;_ _we did love,_ for instance, being written _love-did-we._ This derivation of _d_ in _ed_ is questioned. The _d_ of the participle is not from _did_ but is from an old participle suffix. The _e_ in the _ea_ of both these forms is the old connecting vowel.]

TO THE TEACHER.--It would be well to require the pupils, in studying and in reciting these lists of irregular verbs, to frame short sentences illustrating the proper use of the past tense and the past participle, _e.g._ I _began_ yesterday; He has _begun_ to do better. In this way the pupils will be saved the mechanical labor of memorizing forms which they already know how to use, and they will be led to correct what has been faulty in their use of other forms.

+Remarks.+--Verbs that have both a regular and an irregular form are called +Redundant.+

Verbs that are wanting in any of their parts, as _can_ and _may,_ are called +Defective.+

The present participle is not here given as a principal part. It may always be formed from the present tense by adding _ing._

In adding _ing_ and other terminations, the Rules for Spelling (see Lesson 127) should be observed.

The forms below in Italics are regular; and those in smaller type are obsolete, and need not be committed to memory.

_Present. Past. Past Par._ Abide, abode, abode. Awake, awoke, _awaked. awaked._ Be _or_ am, was, been. Bear, bore, born, (_bring forth_) bare, borne. Bear, bore, borne. (_carry_) bare, Beat, beat, beaten, beat. Begin, began, begun. Bend, bent, bent, _bended, bended._ Bereave, bereft, bereft, _bereaved, bereaved._ Beseech, besought, besought. Bet, bet, bet, _betted, betted._ Bid, bade, bid, bidden, bid. Bind, bound, bound. Bite, bit, bitten, bit. Bleed, bled, bled. Blend, blent, blent, _blended, blended._ Bless, blest, blest, blessed, blessed. Blow, blew, blown. Break, broke, broken. brake, Breed, bred, bred. Bring, brought, brought. Build, built, built. Burn burnt, burnt, burned, burned. Burst, burst, burst. Buy, bought, bought. Can,[1] could, -----. Cast, cast, cast. Catch, caught, caught. Chide, chid, chidden, chid. Choose, chose, chosen. Cleave, _cleaved, cleaved._ (_adhere_) clave, Cleave cleft, cleft, (_split_) clove, cloven, clave, _cleaved._ Cling, clung, clung. Clothe, clad, clad, _clothed clothed._ (Be)Come, came, come. Cost, cost, cost. Creep, crept, crept. Crow crew, _crowed._ _crowed_, Cut, cut, cut. Dare, durst, _dared_. (_venture_) _dared_, Deal, dealt, dealt. Dig, dug, dug, _digged_, _digged._ Do, did, done. Draw, drew, drawn. Dream, dreamt, dreamt, _dreamed, dreamed._ Dress drest, drest, _dressed, dressed._ Drink, drank, drunk.

Drive, drove, driven. Dwell dwelt, dwelt, _dwelled, dwelled._ Eat, ate, eaten. (Be) Fall, fell, fallen. Feed, fed, fed. Feel, felt, felt. Fight, fought, fought. Find, found, found. Flee, fled, fled. Fling, flung, flung. Fly, flew, flown. Forsake, forsook, forsaken. Forbear, forbore, forborne. Freeze, froze, frozen. (For)Get, got, got, gotten.[2] Gild, gilt, gilt, _gilded, gilded._ Gird, girt, girt, _girded, girded._ (For)Give, gave, given. Go, went,[3] gone. (En)Grave _graved, graved,_ graven. Grind, ground, ground. Grow, grew, grown. Hang, hung, hung, _hanged, hanged_.[4] Have, had, had. Hear, heard heard. Heave hove, hove,[5] _heaved, heaved._ Hew, _hewed, hewed,_ hewn. Hide, hid, hidden, hid. Hit, hit, hit. (Be)Hold, held, held, holden. Hurt, hurt, hurt. Keep, kept, kept. Kneel knelt, knelt, _kneeled, kneeled._ Knit knit, knit, _knitted, knitted._ Know, knew, known. Lade, _laded, laded,_ (load) laden. Lay, laid, laid. Lead, led, led.

[Footnote 1: Can, may, shall, will, must, and ought were originally past forms. This accounts for their having no change in the third person.]

[Footnote 2: Gotten is obsolescent except in forgotten.]

[Footnote 3: _Went_ is the past of _wend,_ to _go_.]

[Footnote 4: _Hang,_ to execute by hanging, is regular.]

[Footnote 5: _Hove_ is used in sea language.]

* * * * *

LESSON 133.

LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS--CONTINUED.

_Present. Past. Past Par._

Lean, leant, leant, _leaned, leaned_. Leap, leapt, leapt, _leaped, leaped_. Learn, learnt, learnt, _learned, learned_. Leave, left, left. Lend, lent, lent. Let, let, let. Lie, lay, lain. (_recline_) Light, _lighted, lighted_, lit, lit.[1] Lose, lost, lost. Make, made, made. May, might, ----. Mean, meant, meant. Meet, met, met. Mow, _mowed, mowed_, mown. Must, ----, ----. Ought, ----, ----. Pay, paid, paid. Pen, pent, pent, (_inclose_) _penned, penned_. Put, put, put. Quit, quit, quit, _quitted, quitted_. ----, quoth,[2] ----. Rap, rapt, rapt, _rapped, rapped_. Read, read, read. Rend, rent, rent. Rid, rid, rid. Ride, rode, ridden. Ring, rang, rung, _rung_, (A)Rise, rose, risen. Rive, _rived_, riven, _rived_. Run, ran, run. Saw, _sawed, sawed_, sawn. Say, said, said. See, saw, seen. Seek, sought, sought. Seethe, _seethed, seethed_, sod, sodden. Sell, sold, sold. Send, sent, sent. (Be)Set, set, set. Shake, shook, shaken. Shall, should, ------. Shape, _shaped, shaped_, shapen Shave, _shaved, shaved_, shaven. Shear, _sheared, sheared_, shore, shorn. Shed, shed, shed. Shine, shone, shone. Shoe, shod, shod. Shoot, shot, shot. Show, _showed_, shown, _showed_. Shred, shred, shred. Shrink, shrank, shrunk, shrunk, shrunken. Shut, shut, shut.

Sing, sang, sung. sung, Sink, sank, sunk, sunk, sunken. Sit, sat, sat. Slay, slew, slain. Sleep, slept, slept. Slide, slid, slidden, slid. Sling, slung, slung. slang Slink, slunk, slunk. Slit, slit, slit, _slitted, slitted_. Smell, smelt, smelt, _smelled, smelled_. Smite, smote, smitten, smit. Sow, _sowed_, sown, _sowed_. Speak, spoke, spoken. spake, Speed, sped, sped. Spell, spelt, spelt, _spelled, spelled_. Spend, spent, spent. Spill, spilt, spilt, _spilled, spilled_. Spin, spun, spun. span, Spit, spit, spit, spat, spitten. Split, split, split. Spoil, spoilt, spoilt, _spoiled, spoiled_. Spread, spread, spread. Spring, sprang, sprung. sprung, Stand, stood, stood. Stave, stove, stove, _staved, staved_. Stay, staid, staid, _stayed, stayed_. Steal, stole, stolen. Stick, stuck, stuck. Sting, stung, stung. Stink, stunk, stunk. stank, Strew, _strewed_, strewn, _strewed_. Stride, strode, stridden. Strike, struck, struck, stricken. String, strung, strung, Strive, strove, striven. Strow, _strowed_, strown, _strowed_. Swear, swore, sworn sware, Sweat, sweat, sweat, _sweated, sweated_. Sweep, swept, swept. Swell, _swelled_, _swelled_, swollen. Swim, swam, swum. swum, Swing, swung, swung. Take, took, taken, Teach, taught, taught. Tear, tore, torn. tare, Tell, told, told. Think, thought, thought. Thrive, throve, thriven, _thrived_, _thrived_. Throw, threw, thrown. Thrust, thrust, thrust. Tread, trod, trodden, trod. Wake, _waked_, _waked_, woke, woke. Wax, _waxed_, _waxed_, waxen. Wear, wore, worn. Weave, wove, woven. Weep, wept, wept. Wet, wet, wet. Will, would, ----. Win, won, won. Wind, wound, wound. Work, wrought, wrought, _worked_, _worked_. (to)wit, wot, wist, ----. Wring, wrung, wrung. Write, wrote, written.

[Footnote 1: _Lighted_ Is preferred to _lit_.]

[Footnote 2: _Quoth_, now nearly obsolete, is used only in the first and the third person of the past tense. _Quoth_ I = _said_ I. Other forms nearly obsolete are sometimes met in literature; as, "_Methinks_ I scent the morning air"; "Woe _worth_ the day." _Methinks_ (A. S. _thincan_, to seem, not _thencan_, to think) = _seems to me_. In the sentence above, _I scent the morning air_ is the subject, _thinks_ is the predicate, and _me_ is a "dative," or a pronoun used adverbially. Woe _worth_ (A. S. _weorthan_, to _be_ or _become_) the day = Woe _be_ to the day, or _Let_ woe _be_ to the day, or _May_ woe _be_ to the day.]

NOTE.--Professor Lounsbury says, "Modern English has lost not a single one [irregular, or strong, verb] since the reign of Queen Elizabeth"; and adds, "The present disposition of the language is not only to hold firmly to the strong verbs it already possesses but ... even to extend their number whenever possible." And he instances a few which since 1600 have deserted from the regular conjugation to the irregular.

But it should be said that new English verbs, from whatever source derived, form their past tense and participle in _ed_. So that while the regular verbs are not increasing by desertions from the irregular, the regular verbs are slowly gaining in number.

* * * * *

LESSON 134.

FORMS OF THE VERB--CONTINUED.

CONJUGATION [Footnote: We give the conjugation of the verb in the simplest form consistent with what is now demanded of a text-book. Much of this scheme might well be omitted.

Those who wish to reject the Potential Mode, and who prefer a more elaborate and technical classification of the mode and tense forms, are referred to pages 373, 374. ]--SIMPLEST FORM.

REMARK.--English verbs have few inflections compared with those of other languages. Some irregular verbs have seven forms--+see+, +saw+, +seeing+, +seen+, +sees+, +seest+, +sawest+; regular verbs have six--+walk+, +walked+, +walking+, +walks+, +walkest+, +walkedst+. As a substitute for other inflections we prefix auxiliary verbs, and make what are called _compound_, or _periphrastic_, forms.

+Direction+.--_Fill out the following forms, using the principal parts of the verb walk--present +walk+; past +walked+; past participle +walked+:_--

INDICATIVE MODE.

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. (I) /Pres./, 1. (We) /Pres./, 2. (You) /Pres./, 2. (You) /Pres./, (Thou) /Pres./+est,[1], 3. (He) /Pres./+s;[1] 3. (They) /Pres./.

PAST TENSE.

1. (I) /Past/, 1. (We) /Past/, 2. (You) /Past/, 2. (You) /Past/, (Thou) /Past/+st+, 3. (He) /Past/; 3. (They) /Past/.

FUTURE TENSE.

1. (I) shall /Pres./, 1. (We) shall /Pres./, 2. (You) will /Pres./, 2. (You) will /Pres./, (Thou) wil-+t+ /Pres./, 3. (He) will /Pres./; 3. (They) will /Pres./.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

1. (I) have /Past Par./, 1. (We) have /Past Par./, 2. (You) have /Past Par./, 2. (You) have /Past Par./, (Thou) ha-+st+ /Past Par./, 3. (He) ha-+s+ /Past Par./; 3. (They) have /Past Par./.

PAST PERFECT TENSE.

1. (I) had /Past Par./, 1. (We) had /Past Par./ 2. (You) had /Past Par./, 2. (You) had /Past Par./ (Thou) had-+st+ /Past Par./, 3. (He) had /Past Par./; 3. (They) had /Past Par./

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.

1. (I) shall have /Past Par./, 1. (We) shall have /Past Par./, 2. (You) will have /Past Par./, 2. (You) will have /Past Par./, (Thou) wil-+t+ have /Past Par./,

3. (He)...will have..../Past Par./; 3. (They) will have /Past Par./.

[Footnote 1: In the indicative present, second, singular, old style, _st_ is sometimes added in stead of _est_; and in the third person, common style, _es_ is added when _s_ will not unite. In the third person, old style, _eth_ is added.]

POTENTIAL MODE.[2]

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular. Plural.

1. (I) may /Pres./, 1. (We) may /Pres./, 2. (You) may /Pres./, 2. (You) may /Pres./, (Thou) may-+st+ /Pres./, 3. (He) may /Pres./; 3. (They) may /Pres./.

PAST TENSE.

1. (I) might /Pres./, 1. (We) might /Pres./, 2. (You) might /Pres./, 2. (You) might /Pres./, (Thou) might-+st+ /Pres./, 3. (He) might /Pres./; 3. (They) might /Pres./.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

1. (I) may have /Past Par./, 1. (We) may have /Past Par./, 2. (You) may have /Past Par./, 2. (You) may have /Past Par./, (Thou) may-+st+ have /Past Par./, 3. (He) may have /Past Par./. 3. (They) may have /Past Par./.

PAST PERFECT TENSE.

1. (I) might have /Past Par./, 1. (We) might have /Past Par./, 2. (You) might have /Past Par./, 2. (You) might have /Past Par./, (Thou) might-+st+ have /Past Par./, 3. (He) might have /Past Par./. 3. (They) might have /Past Par./.

Singular.

[Footnote 2: Those who do not wish to recognize a Potential Mode, but prefer the unsatisfactory task of determining when _may, can, must, might, could, would, and should_ are independent verbs in the indicative, and when auxiliaries in the subjunctive, are referred to pages 370-374.]

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.[3]

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular.

2. (If thou) /Pres./ 3. (If he) /Pres./

[Footnote 3: The subjunctive as a form of the verb is fading out of the language. The only distinctive forms remaining (except for the verb _be_) are the second and the third person singular of the present, and even these ate giving way to the indicative. Such forms as If he _have loved_, etc. are exceptional. It is true that other forms, as, If he _had known, Had_ he _been_, _Should_ he _fall_, may be used in a true subjunctive sense, to assert what is a mere conception of the mind, i. e., what is merely thought of, without regard to its being or becoming a fact; but in these cases it is not the form of the verb but the connective or something in the construction of the sentence that determines the manner of assertion. In parsing, the verbs in such constructions may be treated as indicative or potential, with a subjunctive meaning.

The offices of the different mode and tense forms are constantly interchanging; a classification based strictly on meaning would be very difficult, and would confuse the learner.]

IMPERATIVE MODE.[4]

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular. Plural.

2. /Pres./ (you or thou); 2. /Pres./ (you or ye).

[Footnote 4: From such forms as _Let us sing, Let them talk_, some grammarians make a first and a third person imperative. But _us_ is not the subject of the verb-phrase _let-sing_, and _let_ is not of the first person. _Us_ is the object complement of _let_, and the infinitive _sing_ is the objective complement, having us for its assumed subject.

Some would find a first and a third person imperative in such sentences as "Now tread _we_ a measure"; "_Perish_ the _thought_." But these verbs express strong wish or desire and by some grammarians are called "optative subjunctives." "Perish the thought" = "May the thought perish," or "I desire that the thought may perish," or "Let the thought perish."]

INFINITIVES.

PRESENT TENSE. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

(To)[5] /Pres./ (To) have /Past Par./

[Footnote 5: _To_, as indicated by the (), is not treated as a part of the verb. Writers on language are generally agreed that when _to_ introduces an infinitive phrase used as an adjective or an adverb, it performs its proper function as a preposition, meaning _toward_, _for_, etc.; as, I am inclined _to_ believe; I came _to_ hear. When the infinitive phrase is used as a noun, the _to_ expresses no relation; it seems merely to introduce the phrase. When a word loses its proper function without taking on the function of some other part of speech, we do not see why it should change its name. In the expressions, _For_ me to do this would be wrong; _Over_ the fence is out of danger, few grammarians would hesitate to call _for_ and _over_ prepositions, though they have no antecedent term of relation.

We cannot see that _to_ is a part of the verb, for it in no way affects the meaning, as does an auxiliary, or as does the to in He was spoken to. Those who call it a part of the verb confuse the learner by speaking of it as the "preposition _to_" (which, as they have said, is not a preposition) "placed before the infinitive," _i.e._, placed before that of which it forms a part --placed before itself.

In the Anglo-Saxon, _to_ was used with the infinitive only in the dative case, where it had its proper function as a preposition; as, nominative _etan_ (to eat); dative _to etanne_; accusative _e: tan_. When the dative ending _ne_ was dropped, making the three forms alike, the _to_ came to be used before the nominative and the accusative, but without expressing relation.

This dative of the infinitive, with _to_, was used mainly to indicate purpose. When, after the dropping of the _ne_ ending, the idea of purpose had to be conveyed by the infinitive, it became usual in Elizabethan literature to place _for_ before the _to_, "And _for to_ deck heaven's battlements."-_Greene_. "What went ye out _for to_ see?"-_Bible_. "Shut the gates _for to_ preserve the town."--_K. Hen. VI., Part III_.]

PARTICIPLES

PRESENT PAST PAST PERFECT. /Pres./+ing+. /Past Par./ Having /Past Par./

+May+, +can+, and +must+ are potential auxiliaries in the present and the present perfect tense; +might+, +could+, +would+, and +should+, in the past and the past perfect.

The +emphatic+ form of the present and the past tense indicative is made by prefixing +do+ and +did+ to the present. _Do_ is prefixed to the imperative also.

TO THE TEACHES.--Require the pupils to fill out these forma with other verbs, regular and irregular, using the auxiliaries named above.

* * * * *

LESSON 135.

FORMS OF THE VERB-CONTINUED.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB +BE+.

[Footnote: The conjugation of _be_ contains three distinct roots--_as, be, was_. _Am, art, is, are_ are from _as_. _Am_ = _as-m_ (_m_ is the _m_ in _me_). _Art_ = _as-t_ (_t_ is the _th_ in _thou_).

Be was formerly conjugated, I _be_, Thou _beest_, He _beth_ or _bes_; _We be_, _Ye be_, _They be_.]

+Direction+.--Learn the following forms, paying no attention to the line at the right of each verb:--

INDICATIVE MODE.

PRESENT TENSE. _Singular. Plural._

1. (I) am ----, 1. (We) are ----, 2. (You) are ---- _or_ 2. (You) are ----, (Thou) art ----, 3. (He) is ----; 3. (They) are ----.

PAST TENSE.

1. (I) was ----, 1. (We) were ----, 2. (You) were ---- _or_ 2. (You) were ----, (Thou) wast ----, 3. (He) was ----; 3. (They) were ----.

FUTURE TENSE.

1. (I) shall be ----, 1. (We) shall be ----, 2. (You) will be ---- _or_ 2. (You) will be ----, (Thou) wilt be ----, 3. (He) will be ----; 3. (They) will be ----.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

1. (I) have been ----, 1. (We) have been ----, 2. (You) have been ---- _or_ 2. (You) have been ----, (Thou) hast been ----, 3. (He) has been ----; 3. (They) have been ----.

PAST PERFECT

1. (I) had been ----, 1. (We) had been ----, 2. (You) had been ---- _or_ 2. (You) had been ----, (Thou) hadst been ----, 3. (He) had been ----; 3. (They) had been ----.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.

1. (I) shall have been ----, 1. (We) shall have been ----, 2. (You) will have been ---- _or_ 2. (You) will have been ----, (Thou) wilt have been ----, 3. (He) will have been ----; 3. (They) will have been ----.

POTENTIAL MODE.

PRESENT TENSE.

_Singular. Plural._ 1. (I) may be ----, 1. (We) may be ----, 2. (You) may be ---- _or_ 2. (You) may be ----, (Thou) mayst be ----, 3. (He) may be ----; 3. (They) may be ----.

PAST TENSE.

1. (I) might be ----, 1. (We) might be ----, 2. (You) might be ---- _or_ 2. (You) might be ----, (Thou) mightst be ----, 3. (He) might be ----; 3. (They) might be ----.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

1. (I) may have been ----, 1. (We) may have been ----, 2. (You) may have been ---- _or_ 2. (You) may have been ----, (Thou) mayst have been ----, 3. (He) may have been ----; 3. (They) may have been ----.

PAST PERFECT TENSE,

1. (I) might have been ----, 1. (We) might have been ----, 2. (You) might have been ---- _or_ 2. (You) might have been ----, (Thou) mightst have been ----, 3. (He) might have been ----; 3. (They) might have been ----.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

PBESENT TENSE.

_Singular. Plural._ 1. (If I) may have been ----, 1. (If we) may have been ----, 2. (If you) may have been ---- _or_ 2. (If you) may have been ----, (If thou) mayst have been ----, 3. (If he) may have been ----; 3. (If they) may have been ----.

PAST TENSE.

_Singular._ 1. (If I) were -----, 2. (If you) were ----, _or_ (If thou) wert ----, 3. (If he) were ----;

IMPERATIVE MODE.

PRESENT TENSE.

_Singular. Plural._ 2. Be (you or thou) ----; 2. Be (you or ye) ----.

INFINITIVES.

PRESENT TENSE. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. (To) be ----. (To) have been ----.

PARTICIPLES.

PRESENT. PAST. PAST PERFECT. Being ----. Been. Having been ----.

* * * * *

LESSON 136.

FORMS OF THE VERB--CONTINUED.

CONJUGATION--PROGRESSIVE AND PASSIVE FORMS.

A verb is conjugated in the +progressive form+ by joining its present participle to the different forms of the verb _be_.

A transitive verb is conjugated in the +passive voice+ by joining its past participle to the different forms of the verb _be_.

+Remark+.--The progressive form denotes a continuance of the action or being; as, The birds _are singing_.

Verbs that in their simple form denote continuance--such as _love_, _respect_, _know_--should not be conjugated in the progressive form. We say, I _love_ the child--not I _am loving_ the child.

+Remarks+.--The progressive form is sometimes used with a passive meaning; as, The house _is building_. In such cases the word in _ing_ was once a verbal noun preceded by the preposition _a_, a contraction from _on_ or _in_; as, While the ark _was a preparing_; While the flesh _was in seething_. In modern language the preposition is dropped, and the word in _ing_ is treated adjectively.

Another passive progressive form, consisting of the verb _be_ completed by the present passive participle, has recently appeared in our language--The house _is being built_, or _was being built_. Although condemned by many linguists as awkward and otherwise objectionable, it has grown rapidly into good use, especially in England, Such a form seems to be needed when the simpler form would be ambiguous, _i.e._, when its subject might be taken to name either the actor or the receiver; as, The child _is whipping_; The prisoner _is trying_. Introduced only to prevent ambiguity, the so-called neologism has pushed its way, and is found where the old form would not be ambiguous. As now used, the new form stands to the old in about the ratio of three to one.

+Direction+.--_Conjugate the verb choose in the progressive form by filling all the blanks left after the different forms of the verb be, in the preceding Lesson, with the present participle choosing; and then in the passive form by filling these blanks with the past participle chosen_.

Notice that after the past participle of the verb _be_ no blank is left. The past participle of the passive is not formed by the aid of _be_; it is never compound. The past participle of a transitive verb is always passive except in such forms as _have chosen, had chosen_. (See _have written_, Lesson 138.) In the progressive, the past participle is wanting. All the participles of the verb _choose_ are arranged in order below.

_Present. Past. Past Perfect_.

_Simplest form_. Choosing, chosen, having chosen. _Progressive form_. Being choosing,* ------, having been choosing. _Passive form_. Being chosen, chosen, having been chosen.

[Footnote *: This form is not commonly used.]

+Direction+.--_Write and arrange as above all the participles of the verbs break, drive, read, lift_.

TO THE TEACHER.--Select other verbs, and require the pupils to conjugate them in the progressive and in the passive form. Require them to give synopses of all the forms. Require them in some of their synopses to use _it_ or some noun for the subject in the third person.

* * * * *

LESSON 137.

CONJUGATION--CONTINUED.

INTERROGATIVE AND NEGATIVE FORMS.

A verb may be conjugated +interrogatively+ in the indicative and potential modes by placing the subject after the first auxiliary; as, _Does he sing?_

A verb may be conjugated +negatively+ by placing _not_ after the first auxiliary; as, He _does not sing_. _Not_ is placed before the infinitive and the participles; as, _not to sing, not singing_.

A question with negation is expressed in the indicative and potential modes by placing the subject and _not_ after the first auxiliary; as, _Does he not sing?_

+Remark+.--Formerly, it was common to use the simple form of the present and past tenses interrogatively and negatively thus: _Loves he? I know not_. Such forms are still common in poetry, but in prose they are now scarcely used. We say, _Does he love?_ _I do not know_. The verbs _be_ and _have_ are exceptions, as they do not take the auxiliary _do_. We say, _Is it right? Have you another?_

+Direction+.--_Write a synopsis in the third person, singular, of the verb walk conjugated_ (1) _interrogatively_, (2) _negatively, and _(3) _so as to express a question with negation. Remember that the indicative and the potential are the only modes that can be used interrogatively._

To THE TEACHER.--Select other verbs, and require the pupils to conjugate them negatively and interrogatively in the progressive and in the passive form. Require the pupils to give synopses of all the forms.

* * * * *

LESSON 138.

MODE AND TENSE FORMS.

COMPOUND FORMS--ANALYSIS.

The +compound+, or +periphrastic, forms+ of the verb consisting of two words may each be resolved into an +asserting word and a participle+ or an +infinitive+.

If we look at the original meaning of the forms +I do write, I shall write, I will write+, we shall find that the so-called auxiliary is the real verb, and that _write_ is an infinitive used as object complement. +I do write = I do+ or +perform+ the action (_to_) write. +I shall write = I owe+ (_to_) +write. I will write = I determine+ (_to_) +write+.

+May write, can write, must write, might write, could write, would write+, and +should write+ may each be resolved into an asserting word and an infinitive.

The forms +is writing, was written+, etc. consist each of an asserting word (the verb _be_), and a participle used as attribute complement.

The forms +have written+ and +had written+ are so far removed from their original meaning that their analysis cannot be made to correspond with their history. They originated from such expressions as _I have a letter written_, in which _have_ ( = _possess_) is a transitive verb taking _letter_ for its object complement, and _written_ is a passive participle modifying _letter_. The idea of possession has faded out of _have_, and the participle has lost its passive meaning. The use of this form has been extended to intransitive verbs--Spring _has come_, Birds _have flown_, etc. being now regularly used instead of the more logical perfect tense forms, Spring _is come_, Birds _are flown_. (_Is come, are flown_, etc. must not be mistaken for transitive verbs in the passive voice.) [Footnote: A peculiar use of _had_ is found in the expressions _had rather go_ and _had better go_, condemned by many grammarians who suppose _had_ to be here used incorrectly for _would_ or _should_. Of these expressions the "Standard Dictionary," an authority worthy of our attention, says:--

"Forms disputed by certain grammatical critics from the days of Samuel Johnson, the critics insisting upon the substitution of _would_ or _should_, as the case may demand, for _had_; but _had rather_ and _had better_ are thoroughly established English, idioms having the almost universal popular and literary sanction of centuries. 'I _would rather_ not go' is undoubtedly correct when the purpose is to emphasize the element of choice, or will, in the matter; but in all ordinary cases 'I _had rather_ not go' has the merit of being idiomatic and easily and universally understood.

"If for 'You _had better_ stay at home' we substitute 'You _should better_ stay at home,' an entirely different meaning is expressed, the idea of expediency giving place to that of obligation."

In the analysis of "_I had rather go_," _had_ is the predicate verb, the infinitive _go_ is the object complement, and the adjective _rather_ completes _had_ and belongs to _go_, i.e., is objective complement. _Had_ (= _should hold_ or _regard_) is treated as a past subjunctive. _Rather_ is the comparative of the old adjective _rathe_ = _early_, from which comes the idea of preference. The expression means, "I should hold going preferable."

The expressions "You _had better_ stay," "I _had as lief_ not be," are similar in construction to "I _had rather_ go." "I _had sooner_ go" is condemned by grammarians because _sooner_ is never an adjective. If _sooner_ is here allowed as an idiom, it is a modifier of _had_. The expression equals, "I should more willingly have going."]

Compounds of more than two words may be analyzed thus: +May have been written+ is composed of the compound auxiliary +may have been+ and the participle +written; may have been+ is composed of the compound auxiliary +may have+ and the participle +been+; and +may have+ is composed of the auxiliary +may+ and the infinitive +have+. _May_ is the asserting word--the first auxiliary is always the asserting word.

+Direction+.--_Study what has been said above and analyze the following verbal forms, distinguishing carefully between participles that may be considered as part of the verb and words that must be treated as attribute complements_:--

1. I may be mistaken. 2. The farm was sold. 3. I shall be contented. 4. Has it been decided? 5. You should have been working. 6. The danger might have been avoided. 7. He may have been tired and sleepy. 8. She is singing. 9. I shall be satisfied. 10. The rule has not been observed. 11. Stars have disappeared. 12. Times will surely change.

TENSE FORMS--MEANING.

The +Present Tense+ is used to express (1) what is actually present, (2) what is true at all times, (3) what frequently or habitually takes place, (4) what is to take place in the future, and it is used (5) in describing past or future events as if occurring at the time of the speaking.

+Examples+.--I _hear_ a voice (action as present). The sun _gives_ light (true at all times). He _writes_ for the newspapers (habitual). Phillips _speaks_ in Boston to-morrow night (future). He _mounts_ the scaffold; the executioners _approach_ to bind him; he _struggles, resists_, etc. (past events pictured to the imagination as present). The clans of Culloden _are_ scattered in fight; they _rally_, they _bleed_, etc. (future events now seen in vision).

The +Past Tense+ may express (1) simply past action or being, (2) a past habit or custom, (3) a future event, and (4) it may refer to present time.

+Examples+.--The birds _sang_ (simply past action). He _wrote_ for the newspapers (past habit). If I _should go_, you _would miss_ me (future events). If he _were_ here, he _would enjoy_ this (refers to present time).

The +Future Tense+ may express (1) simply future action or being, (2) a habit or custom as future or as indefinite in time.

+Examples+.--I _shall write_ soon (simply future action). He _will sit_ there by the hour (indefinite in time).

The +Present Perfect Tense+ expresses (1) action or being as completed in present time (_i.e._, a period of time--an hour, a year, an age--of which the present forms a part), and (2) action or being to be completed in a future period.

+Examples+.--Homer _has written_ poems (the period of time affected by this completed action embraces the present). When I _have finished_ this, you _shall have_ it (action to be completed in a future period).

The +Past Perfect Tense+ expresses (1) action or being as completed at some specified past time, and (2) in a conditional or hypothetical clause it may express past time.

+Examples+.--I _had seen_ him when I met you (action completed at a specified past time). If I _had had_ time, I _should have written_ (I _had_ not time--I _did_ not _write_.)

The +Future Perfect Tense+ expresses action to be completed at some specified future time.

+Example+.--I _shall have seen_ him by to-morrow noon.

+Direction+.--_Study what has been said above about the meaning of the tense forms, and describe carefully the time expressed by each of the following verbs_:--

1. I go to the city to-morrow. 2. The village master taught his little school. 3. Plato reasons well. 4. A triangle has three sides. 5. To-morrow is the day appointed. 6. Moses has told many important facts. 7. The ship sails next week. 8. She sings well. 9. Cicero has written orations. 10. He would sit for hours and watch the smoke curl from his pipe. 11. You may hear when the next mail arrives, 12. Had I known this before, I could have saved you much trouble. 13. He will occasionally lose his temper. 14. At the end of this week I shall have been in school four years. 15. If I were you, I would try that. 16. He will become discouraged before he has thoroughly tried it. 17. She starts, she moves, she seems to feel the thrill of life along her keel.

+Model for Written Parsing adapted to all Parts of Speech+. _Oh! it has a voice for those who on their sick beds lie and waste away._

[Transcriber's Note: The following two tables have been split to fit within Project Gutenberg line-width requirements. The first column of each table has been repeated for easier reference.]

|CLASSIFICATION. | MODIFICATIONS. ---------|-----------------|---------------------------------------------| Sentence.|Class. |Sub-C. |Voice.|Mode.|Tense.|Num. |Per.| Gen. |Case.| | | | | | | | | | | Oh! |Int. | | | | | | | | | it |Pro. |Per. | | | |Sing.| ad.| Neut. |Nom. | has |Vb. |Ir., Tr. | Act. | Ind.|Pres. | " | " | | | a |Adj. |Def. | | | | | | | | voice |N. |Com. | | | | " | " | " |Obj. | for |Prep. | | | | | | | | | those |Pro. |Adj. | | | |Plu. | " |M. or F.| " | who |Pro. |Rel. | | | | " | " | " |Nom. | on |Prep. | | | | | | | | | their |Pro. |Per. | | | | " | " | " |Pos. | sick |Adj. |Des. | | | | | | | | beds |N. |Com. | | | | " | " | Neut. |Obj. | lie |Vb. |Ir., Int. | -- | Ind.|Pres. | " | " | | | and |Conj. |Co-or. | | | | | | | | waste |Vb. |Reg., Int.| -- | " | " | " | " | | | away. |Adv. |Place. | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------

| | SYNTAX. ---------|-------|----------------------------------- Sentence.|Deg. of| | Comp.| Oh! | |Independent. it | |Subject of _has_. has | |Predicate of _it_. a | -- |Modifier of _voice_. voice | |Object comp of _has_. for | |Shows Rel. of _has_ to _those_. those | |Prin. word in Prep. phrase. who | |Subject of _lie_ and _waste_. on | |Shows Rel. of _lie_ to _beds_. their | |Possessive Mod. of _beds_. sick | Pos. |Modifier of _beds_. beds | |Prin. word in Prep. phrase. lie | |Predicate of _who_. and | |Connects _lie_ and _waste_. waste | |Predicate of _who_. away. | -- |Modifier of _waste_. -----------------------------------------------------

TO THE TEACHER.--For further exercises in parsing the verb and for exercises in general parsing, select from the preceding Lessons on Analysis.

* * * * *

LESSON 139

PARSING.

+Direction+.--_Select and parse, according to the Model below, the verbs in the sentences of Lesson_ 42. _For the agreement of verbs, see Lesson_ 142.

+Model for Written Parsing--_Verbs_+.--_The Yankee, selling his farm, wanders away to seek new lands_.

CLASSIFICATION. | MODIFICATIONS. ---------------------------|------------------------------| Verbs. | Kind. |Voice.|Mode.|Tense.|Num. |Per.| *selling|Pr. Par., Ir., Tr.| Act. | -- | -- | -- | -- | wanders |Reg., Int. | -- |Ind. |Pres. |Sing.| 3d.| *seek |Inf., Ir., Tr. | Act. | -- | " | -- | | | | | | | | |

| SYNTAX --------|--------- Verbs. | selling |Mod. of _Yankee_. wanders |Pred. of _Yankee_. seek |Prin. word in phrase | Mod. of _wanders_.

[Footnote: Participles and infinitives have neither person nor number.]

(See Model for Written Parsing on opposite page.)

* * * * *

LESSON 140.

CONSTRUCTION OF MODE AND TENSE FORMS.

+Caution+.--Be careful to give every verb its proper form and meaning.

+Direction+.--_Correct the following errors, and give your reasons_:--

1. I done it myself. 2. He throwed it into the river, for I seen him when he done it. 3. She sets by the open window enjoying the scene that lays before her.

+Explanation+.--_Lay_ (to place) is transitive, _lie_ (to rest) is intransitive; _set_ (to place) is transitive, _sit_ (to rest) is intransitive. _Set_ in some of its meanings is intransitive.

4. The tide sits in. 5. Go and lay down. 6. The sun sits in the west. 7. I remember when the corner stone was lain. 8. Sit the plates on the table. 9. He sat out for London yesterday. 10. Your dress sets well. 11. The bird is setting on its eggs. 12. I laid there an hour. 13. Set down and talk a little while. 14. He has laid there an hour. 15. I am setting by the river. 16. He has went and done it without my permission. 17. He flew from justice. 18. Some valuable land was overflown. 19. She come just after you left. 20. They sung a new tune which they had not sang before. 21. The water I drunk there was better than any that I had drank before. 22. The leaves had fell. 23. I had rode a short distance when the storm begun to gather. 24. I found the water froze. 25. He raised up. 26. He run till he became so weary that he was forced to lay down. 27. I knowed that it was so, for I seen him when he done it. 28. I had began to think that you had forsook us. 29. I am afraid that I cannot learn him to do it. 30. I guess that I will stop. 31. I expect that he has gone to Boston. 32. There ain't any use of trying. 33. I have got no mother. 34. Can I speak to you? 35. He had ought to see him.

+Explanation+.--As _ought_ is never a participle, it cannot be used after _had_ to form a compound tense.

+Caution+.--A conditional or a concessive clause takes a verb in the indicative mode when the action or being is assumed as a fact, or when the uncertainty lies merely in the speaker's knowledge of the fact. But when the action or being in such a clause is merely thought of as a contingency, or in such a clause the speaker prefers to put hypothetically something of whose truth or untruth he has no doubt, the subjunctive is used. The subjunctive is frequently used in indirect questions, in expressing a wish for that which it is impossible to attain at once or at all, and instead of the potential mode in independent clauses.

+Examples+.-- 1. If (= _since_) it rains, why do you go? 2. If it _rains_ (now), I cannot go out. 3. If it _rain_, the work will be delayed. 4. Though it _rain_ to-morrow, we must march. 5. If there _be_ mountains, there must be valleys between. 6. Though honey _be_ sweet, one can't make a meal of it. 7. If my friend _were_ here, he would enjoy this. 8. Though immortality _were_ improbable, we should still believe in it. 9. One may doubt whether the best men _be known_. 10. I wish the lad _were_ taller. 11. Oh! that I _were_ a Samson in strength. 12. It _were_ better for him that a millstone were hanged about his neck.

+Explanation+.--In (1) the raining is assumed as a fact. In (2) the speaker is uncertain of the fact. In the conditional clause of (3) and in the concessive clause of (4) the raining is thought of as a mere contingency. The speaker is certain of the truth of what is hypothetically expressed in the conditional clause of (5) and in the concessive clause of (6), and is certain of the untruth of what is hypothetically expressed in the conditional clause of (7) and in the concessive clause of (8). There is an indirect question in (9), a wish in (10) for something not at once attainable and in (11) for something forever unattainable, and in (12) the subjunctive mode is used in place of the potential.

+Remarks+.--When there is doubt as to whether the indicative or the subjunctive mode is required, use the indicative.

The present subjunctive forms may be treated as infinitives used to complete omitted auxiliaries; as, If it (_should_) _rain_, the work will be delayed; Till one greater man (_shall_) _restore_ us, etc. This will often serve as a guide in distinguishing the indicative from the subjunctive mode.

_If, though, lest, unless_, etc. are usually spoken of as signs of the subjunctive mode, but these words are now more frequently followed by the indicative than by the subjunctive.

+Direction+.--_Justify the mode of the italicized verbs in the following sentences_:--

1. If this _were_ so, the difficulty would vanish. 2. If he _was_ there, I did not see him. 3. If to-morrow _be_ fine, I will walk with you. 4. Though this _seems_ improbable, it is true. 5. If my friend _is_ in town, he will call this evening. 6. If he ever _comes_, we shall know it.

+Explanation+.--In (6) and (7) the coming is referred to as a fact to be decided in future time.

7. If he _comes_ by noon, let me know. 8. The ship leaps, as it _were_, from billow to billow. 9. Take heed that thou _speak_ not to Jacob. 10. If a pendulum _is drawn _to one side, it will swing to the other.

+Explanation+.--_Be_ is often employed in making scientific statements like the preceding, and may therefore be allowed, _If a pendulum is drawn = Whenever a pendulum is drawn_.

11. I wish that I _were_ a musician. 12. _Were_ I so disposed, I could not gratify you. 13. This sword shall end thee unless thou _yield_. 14. Govern well thy appetite, lest sin _surprise_ thee. 15. I know not whether it _is_ so or not. 16. Would he _were_ fatter! 17. If there _were_ no light, there would be no colors. 18. Oh, that he _were_ a son of mine! 19. Though it _be_ cloudy to-night, it will be cold. 20. Though the whole _exceed_ a part, we sometimes prefer a part to the whole. 21. Whether he _go_ or not, I must be there. 22. Though an angel from heaven _command_ it, we should not steal. 23. If there _be_ an eye, it was made to see. 24. It _were_ well it _were done_ quickly.

+Direction+.--_Supply in each of the following sentences a verb in the indicative or the subjunctive mode, and give a reason for your choice_:--

1. I wish it ---- in my power to help you. 2. I tremble lest he ----. 3. If he ---- guilty, the evidence does not show it. 4. He deserves our pity, unless his tale ---- a false one. 5. Though he ---- there, I did not see him. 6. If he ---- but discreet, he will succeed. 7. If I ---- he, I would do differently. 8. If ye ---- men, fight.

* * * * *

LESSON 141.

CONSTRUCTION OF MODE AND TENSE FORMS--CONTINUED.

+Caution+.--Be careful to employ the tense forms of the different modes in accordance with their meaning, and in such a way as to preserve the proper order of time.

+Direction+.--_Correct the following errors, and give your reasons_:--

1. That custom has been formerly quite popular. 2. Neither will they be persuaded, though one rose from the dead. 3. He that was dead sat up and began to speak. 4. A man bought a horse for one hundred dollars; and, after keeping it three months, at an expense of ten dollars a month, he sells it for two hundred dollars. What per cent does he gain? 5. I should say that it was an hour's ride. 6. If I had have seen him, I should have known him. 7. I wish I was in Dixie. 8. We should be obliged if you will favor us with a song. 9. I intended to have called.

+Explanation+.--This is incorrect; it should be, _I intended to call_. The act of calling was not completed at the time indicated by _intended_.

+Remark+.--Verbs of commanding, desiring, expecting, hoping, intending, permitting, etc. are followed by verbs denoting present or future time. [Footnote: The "Standard Dictionary" makes this restriction: "The doubling of the past tenses in connection with the use of _have_ with a past participle is proper and necessary when the completion of the future act was intended before the occurrence of something else mentioned or thought of. Attention to this qualification, which has been overlooked in the criticism of tense-formation and connection, is especially important and imperative. If one says, 'I meant _to have visited_ Paris and _to have returned_ to London before my father _arrived_ from America,' the past [present perfect] infinitive ... is necessary for the expression of the completion of the acts purposed. 'I meant _to visit_ Paris and _to return_ to London before my father _arrived_ from America,' may convey suggestively the thought intended, but does not express it."]

The present infinitive expresses an action as present or future, and the present perfect expresses it as completed, at the time indicated by the principal verb. I _am glad to have met you_ is correct, because the meeting took place before the time of being glad.

I _ought to have gone_ is exceptional. _Ought_ has no past tense form, and so the present perfect infinitive is used to make the expression refer to past time.

10. We hoped to have seen you often. 11. I should not have let you eaten it. 12. I should have liked to have seen it. 13. He would not have dared done that. 14. You ought to have helped me to have done it. 15. We expected that he would have arrived last night. 16. The experiment proved that air had weight.

+Remark+.--What is true or false at all times is generally expressed in the present tense, whatever tense precedes.

There seems to be danger of applying this rule too rigidly. When a speaker does not wish to vouch for the truth of the general proposition, he may use the past tense, giving it the form of an indirect quotation; as, He said that iron _was_ the most valuable of metals. The tense of the dependent verb is sometimes attracted into that of the principal verb; as, I _knew_ where the place _was_.

17. I had never known before how short life really was. 18. We then fell into a discussion whether there is any beauty independent of utility. The General maintained that there was not; Dr. Johnson maintained that there was. 19. I have already told you that I was a gentleman. 20. Our fathers held that all men were created equal.

+Caution+.--Use _will_ and _would_ to imply that the subject names the one whose will controls the action; use _shall_ and _should_ to imply that the one named by the subject is under the control of external influence.

+Remark+.--The original meaning of _shall_ (to _owe_, to _be obliged_) and _will_ (to _determine_) gives us the real key to their proper use.

The only case in which some trace of the original meaning of these auxiliaries cannot be found is the one in which the subject of _will_ names something incapable of volition; as, The _wind will blow_. Even this may be a kind of personification.

+Examples+.--I _shall go_; You _will go_; He _will go_. These are the proper forms to express mere futurity, but even here we can trace the original meaning of _shall_ and _will_. In the first person the speaker avoids egotism by referring to the act as an obligation or duty rather than as something under the control of his own will. In the second and third persons it is more courteous to refer to the will of others than to their duty.

I _will go_. Here the action is under the control of the speaker's will. He either promises or determines to go.

You _shall go_; He _shall go_. Here the speaker either promises the going or determines to compel these persons to go; in either case the one who goes is under some external influence.

_Shall_ I _go?_ Here the speaker puts himself under the control of some external influence--the will of another.

_Will_ I _go?_--_i. e_., Is it my will to go?--is not used except to repeat another's question. It would be absurd for one to ask what his own will is.

_Shall_ you _go_? Ans. I _shall_. _Will_ you _go_? Ans. I _will_. _Shall_ he _go?_ Ans. He _shall_. _Will_ he _go?_ Ans. He _will_. The same auxiliary is used in the question that is used in the answer.

No difficulty _shall hinder_ me. The difficulty that might do the hindering is not to be left to itself, but is to be kept under the control of the speaker.

He says that he _shall go_; He says that he _will go_. Change the indirect quotations introduced by _that_ to direct quotations, and the application of the Caution will be apparent.

You _will see_ that my horse is at the door by nine o'clock. This is only an apparent exception to the rule. A superior may courteously avoid the appearance of compulsion, and refer to his subordinate's willingness to obey.

They knew that I _should be_ there, and that he _would be_ there. The same principles apply to _should_ and _would_ that apply to _shall_ and _will_. In this example the events are future as to past time; making them future as to present time, we have, They know that I _shall be_ there, and that he _will be_ there.

My friend said that he _should_ not _set_ out to-morrow. Change the indirect to a direct quotation, and the force of _should_ will be seen.

+Direction+.--_Assign a reason for the use of shall or will in each of the following sentences_:--

1. Hear me, for I will speak. 2. If you will call, I shall be happy to accompany you. 3. Shall you be at liberty to-day? 4. I shall never see him again. 5. I will never see him again. 6. I said that he should be rewarded. 7. Thou shalt surely die. 8. Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again. 9. Though I should die, yet will I not deny thee. 10. Though I should receive a thousand shekels of silver in mine hand, yet would I not put forth my hand against the king's son.

+Direction+.--_Fill each of the following blanks with shall, will, should, or would, and give the reasons for your choice_:--

1. He knew who ---- betray him. 2. I ---- be fatigued if I had walked so far. 3. You did better than I ---- have done. 4. If he ---- come by noon, ---- you be ready? 5. They do me wrong, and I ---- not endure it. 6. I ---- be greatly obliged if you ---- do me the favor. 7. If I ---- say so, I ---- be guilty of falsehood. 8. You ---- be disappointed if you ---- see it. 9. ---- he be allowed to go on? 10. ---- you be unhappy, if I do not come?

+Direction+.--_Correct the following errors, and give your reasons_:--

1. Where will I leave you? 2. Will I be in time? 3. It was requested that no person would leave his seat. 4. They requested that the appointment would be given to a man who should be known to his party. 5. When will we get through this tedious controversy? 6. I think we will have rain.

* * * * *

LESSON 142.

CONSTRUCTION OF NUMBER AND PERSON FORMS.

AGREEMENT.--VERBS--PRONOUNS.

+Caution+.--A verb must agree with its subject in number and person.

+Remarks+.--Practically, this rule applies to but few forms. +Are+ and +were+ are the only plural forms retained by the English verb. In the common style, most verbs have one person form, made by adding +s+ or +es+ (_has_, in the present perfect tense, is a contraction of the indicative present--_ha_(_ve_)_s_). The verb _be_ has +am+ (first person) and +is+ (third person).

In the solemn style, the second person singular takes the ending +est+, +st+, or +t+, and, in the indicative present, the third person singular adds +eth+. (See Lessons 134 and 135.)

_Need_ and _dare_, when followed by an infinitive without _to_, are generally used instead of _needs_ and _dares_; as, He _need_ not do it; He _dare_ not do it.

+Caution+.--A collective noun requires a verb in the plural when the individuals in the collection are thought of; but, when the collection as a whole is thought of, the verb should be singular.

+Examples+.-- l. The _multitude were_ of one mind. 2. The _multitude was_ too large to number. 3. A _number were_ inclined to turn back, 4. The _number_ present _was_ not ascertained.

+Caution+.--When a verb has two or more subjects connected by _and_, it must agree with them in the plural.

+Exceptions+.--l. When the connected subjects are different names of the same thing, or when they name several things taken as one whole, the verb must be singular; as, My old _friend and schoolmate is_ in town. _Bread and milk is_ excellent food.

2. When the connected subjects are preceded by _each, every, many a_, or _no_, they are taken separately, and the verb agrees with the nearest; as, _Every man, woman, and child was_ lost.

3. When the subjects are emphatically distinguished, the verb agrees with the first and is understood with the second; as, _Time, and patience also, is_ needed. (The same is true of subjects connected by _as well as_; as, _Time, as well as patience, is_ needed.)

4. When one of the subjects is affirmative and the other negative, the verb agrees with the affirmative; as, _Books, and not pleasure_, occupy his time.

5. When several subjects follow the verb, each subject may be emphasized by making the verb agree with that which stands nearest; as, Thine _is_ the _kingdom and_ the _power_ _and_ the _glory_.

+Remark+.--When one of two or more subjects connected by _and_ is of the first person, the verb is in the first person; when one of the subjects is of the second person, and none of the first, the verb is in the second person. _I, you, and he_ = _we_; _you and he_ = _you_. We say, _Mary and I shall_ (not _will_) be busy to-morrow.

+Caution+.--When two or more subjects are connected by _or_ or _nor_, the verb agrees in person and number with the nearest; as, Neither _poverty nor wealth was_ desired; Neither _he nor they were_ satisfied.

When the subjects require different forms of the verb, it is generally better to express the verb with each subject or to recast the sentence.

+Remarks+.--When a singular and a plural subject are used, the plural subject is generally placed next to the verb.

In using pronouns of different persons, it is generally more polite for the speaker to mention the one addressed first, and himself last, except when he confesses a fault.

+Caution+.--A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number, gender, and person; as, _Thou who writest_; _He who writes_; _They who write_, etc.

The three special Cautions given above for the agreement of the verb will also aid in determining the agreement of the pronoun with its antecedent.

+Remarks+.--The pronoun and the verb of an adjective clause relating to the indefinite subject _it_ take, by attraction, the person and number of the complement when this complement immediately precedes the adjective clause; as, It is I _that am_ in the wrong; It is thou _that liftest_ me up; It is the dews and showers _that make_ the grass grow.

The pronoun _you_, even when singular, requires a plural verb.

+Direction+.--_Justify the use of the following italicized verbs and pronouns_:--

1. _Books is_ a noun. 2. The good _are_ great. 3. The committee _were_ unable to agree, and _they_ asked to be discharged. 4. The House _has_ decided not to allow _its_ members the privilege. 5. Three times four _is_ twelve. [Footnote: "Three times four _is_ twelve" and "Three times four _are_ twelve" are both used, and both are defended. The question is (see Caution for collective nouns), Is the number four thought of as a whole, or are the individual units composing it thought of? The expression = Four taken three times is twelve. _Times_ is a noun used adverbially.] 6. Five dollars _is_ not too much. 7. Twice as much _is_ too much. 8. Two hours _is_ a long time to wait. 9. To relieve the wretched _was_ his pride. 10. To profess and to possess _are_ two different things. 11. Talking and eloquence _are_ not the same. 12. The tongs _are_ not in _their_ place. 13. Every one _is_ accountable for _his_ own acts. 14. Every book and every paper _was_ found in _its_ place. 15. Not a loud voice, but strong proofs _bring_ conviction.

16. This orator and statesman _has_ gone to _his_ rest. 17. Young's "Night Thoughts" _is his_ most celebrated poetical work. 18. Flesh and blood _hath_ not revealed it. 19. The hue and cry of the country _pursues_ him. 20. The second and the third Epistle of John _contain_ each a single chapter. 21. _Man is_ masculine because _it_ denotes a male. 22. Therein _consists_ the force and use and nature of language. 23. Neither wealth nor wisdom _is_ the chief thing. 24. Either you or I _am_ right. 25. Neither you nor he _is_ to blame. 26. John, and his sister also, _is_ going. 27. The lowest mechanic, as well as the richest citizen, _is_ here protected in _his_ right. 28. There _are_ one or two reasons. [Footnote: When two adjectives differing in number are connected without a repetition of the noun, the tendency is to make the verb agree with the noun expressed.] 29. Nine o'clock and forty-five minutes _is_ fifteen minutes of ten. 30. Mexican figures, or picture-writing, _represent_ things, not words. [Footnote: The verb here agrees with _figures_, as _picture-writing_ is logically explanatory of _figures_.] 31. Many a kind word and many a kind act _has_ been put to his credit.

+Direction+.--_Correct the following errors, and give your reasons_:--

1. _Victuals_ are always plural. 2. Plutarch's "Parallel Lives" are his great work. 3. What sounds have each of the vowels? 4. "No, no," says I. 5. "We agree," says they. 6. Where was you? 7. Every one of these are good in their place. 8. Neither of them have recited their lesson. 9. There comes the boys. 10. Each of these expressions denote action. 11. One of you are mistaken. 12. There is several reasons for this. 13. The assembly was divided in its opinion. 14. The public is invited to attend. 15. The committee were full when this point was decided. 16. The nation are prosperous. 17. Money, as well as men, were needed. 18. Now, boys, I want every one of you to decide for themselves. 19. Neither the intellect nor the heart are capable of being driven. 20. She fell to laughing like one out of their right mind. 21. Five years' interest are due. 22. Three quarters of the men was discharged. 23. Nine-tenths of every man's happiness depend upon this. 24. No time, no money, no labor, were spared. 25. One or the other have erred in their statement. 26. Why are dust and ashes proud? 27. Either the master or his servants is to blame. 28. Neither the servants nor their master are to blame. 29. Our welfare and security consists in unity. 30. The mind, and not the body, sin. 31. He don't like it. 32. Many a heart and home have been desolated by drink.

GENERAL REVIEW.

TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions to the teacher, page 255*.

+Scheme for the Verb.+

(_The numbers refer to Lessons_.)

VERB. Uses. To assert action, being, or state.--Predicate (4, 11) To assume action, being, or state. Participles (37) Infinitives (40) Classes. Form. Regular (92). Irregular (92, 132, 133). (Redundant and Defective) Meaning. Transitive (92). Intransitive (92). Modifications. Voice. Active (129, 130). Passive (129, 130). Mode. Indicative (131, 134-137). Potential (131, 134-137). Subjunctive (131, 134-137, 140). Imperative (131, 134-137). Tense. Present. | Past. | Future. + 131, 134-138, Present Perfect.| 140, 141. Past Perfect. | Future Perfect. | Number. Singular. + 131, 134, 135. Plural. | Person. First. | Second. + 131, 134, 135. Third. | Participles.--Classes. Present. | Past. + 131, 134, 136. Past Perfect. | Infinitives.-- Present. | Present Perfect.| 131, 134, 135.

+Questions on the Verb+.