110. So also _þinn_ (thy), _sinn_ (his, etc., reflexive).

110. So also _þinn_ (thy), _sinn_ (his, etc., reflexive).

111. _vārr_, _vārt_, _vār_ (our) is regular: acc. masc. _vārn_, masc. plur. _vārir_, _vāra_, _vārum_, _vārra_, etc.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ yðarr (_your_) yðart yður _Acc._ yðarn yðart yðra _Dat._ yðrum yðru yðarri _Gen._ yðars yðars yðarrar

_Pl. Nom._ yðrir yður yðrar _Acc._ yðra yður yðrar _Dat._ yðrum yðrum yðrum _Gen._ yðarra yðarra yðarra

112. So also _okkarr_ (our two) and _ykkarr_ (your two).

113. _hans_ (his), _þess_ (its), _hęnnar_ (her), and _þeira_ (their) are indeclinable.

Demonstrative

114.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ sā (_that_) þat sū _Acc._ þann þat þā _Dat._ þeim þvī þeiri _Gen._ þess þess þeirar

_Pl. Nom._ þeir þau þær _Acc._ þā þau þær _Dat._ þeim þeim þeim _Gen._ þeira þeira þeira

115. _hinn_, _hitt_, _hin_ (that) is inflected like _minn_ (except that its vowel is short throughout): acc. masc. _hinn_, plur. masc. _hinir_, _hina_, _hinum_, _hinna_.

116.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ þessi (_this_) þetta þessi _Acc._ þenna þetta þessa _Dat._ þessum þessu þessi _Gen._ þessa þessa þessar

_Pl. Nom._ þessir þessi þessar _Acc._ þessa þessi þessar _Dat._ þessum þessum þessum _Gen._ þessa þessa þessa

Definite

The prefixed definite article is declined thus:

117.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ inn it in _Acc._ inn it ina _Dat._ inum inu inni _Gen._ ins ins innar

_Pl. Nom._ inir in inar _Acc._ ina in inar _Dat._ inum inum inum _Gen._ inna inna inna

118. When suffixed to its noun it undergoes various changes. In its monosyllabic forms it drops its vowel after a short (un-accented) vowel, as in _auga-t_ (the eye), but keeps it after a long vowel, as in _ā-in_ (the river), _trē-it_ (the tree). The dissyllabic forms drop their initial vowel almost everywhere; not, however, after the _-ar_, _-r_, of the gen. sg., nor in _męnninir_ (men, _nom._), _męnn-ina_ (men, _acc._). The _-m_ of the dat. pl. is dropped before the suffixed _-num_.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ fiskr-inn skip-it gjǫf-in _Acc._ fisk-inn skip-it gjǫf-ina _Dat._ fiski-num skipi-nu gjǫf-inni _Gen._ fisks-ins skips-ins gjafar-innar

_Pl. Nom._ fiskar-nir skip-in gjafar-nar _Acc._ fiska-na skip-in gjafar-nar _Dat._ fisku-num skipu-num gjǫfu-num _Gen._ fiska-nna skipa-nna gjafa-nna

_Sg. Nom._ bogi-nn auga-t tunga-n _Acc._ boga-nn auga-t tungu-na _Dat._ boga-num auga-nu tungu-nni _Gen._ boga-ns auga-ns tungu-nnar

_Pl. Nom._ bogar-nir augu-n tungur-nar _Acc._ boga-na augu-n tungur-nar _Dat._ bogu-num augu-num tungnu-num _Gen._ boga-nna augna-nna tungna-nna

Relative

119. The ordinary relative pron. is the indeclinable _er_, often preceded by _sā_: _sā er_ = he who, who, _sū er_ who fem.

Interrogative

120. The neut. _hvat_ has gen. _hvess_, dat. _hvī_, which last is chiefly used as an adverb = 'why.'

121.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ hvārr (_which hvārt hvār of two_) _Acc._ hvārn hvārt hvāra _Dat._ hvārum hvāru hvārri _Gen._ hvārs hvārs hvārrar

_Pl. Nom._ hvārir hvār hvārar _Acc._ hvāra hvār hvārar _Dat._ hvārum hvārum hvārum _Gen._ hvārra hvārra hvārra

122.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ hvęrr (_which, hvęrt hvęr who_) _Acc._ hvęrn hvęrt hvęrja _Dat._ hvęrjum hvęrju hvęrri _Gen._ hvęrs hvęrs hvęrrar

_Pl. Nom._ hvęrir hvęr hvęrjar _Acc._ hvęrja hvęr hvęrjar _Dat._ hvęrjum hvęrjum hvęrjum _Gen._ hvęrra hvęrra hvęrra

Indefinite

123. _einn-hvęrr_, _eitthvęrt_, _einhvęr_ (some one) keeps an invariable _ein-_ in the other cases, the second element being inflected as above.

124. _sumr_ (some) is declined like an ordinary adjective.

125.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ nakkvarr nakkvat nǫkkur (_some_) _Acc._ nakkvarn nakkvat nakkvara _Dat._ nǫkkurum nǫkkuru nakkvarri _Gen._ nakkvars nakkvars nakkvarrar

_Pl. Nom._ nakkvarir nǫkkur nakkvarar _Acc._ nakkvara nǫkkur nakkvarar _Dat._ nǫkkurum nǫkkurum nǫkkurum _Gen._ nakkvarra nakkvarra nakkvarra

126.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ engi (_none, ekki engi no_) _Acc._ engan ekki enga _Dat._ engum engu engri _Gen._ engis engis engrar

_Pl. Nom._ engir engi engar _Acc._ enga engi engar _Dat._ engum engum engum _Gen._ engra engra engra

127. In _hvār-tvęggja_ (each of the two, both) the first element is declined as above, the second is left unchanged.

Verbs

128. There are two classes of verbs, _strong_ and _weak_. Strong verbs are conjugated partly by means of gradation, weak verbs by adding _ð_ (_d_, _t_).

129. The _ð_ of the 2 pl. is dropt before _þit_ (ye two) and _þēr_ (ye): _gefi þēr_, _gāfu þit_.

130. There is a middle voice, which ends in _-mk_ in the 1 pers. sg. and pl., the rest of the verb being formed by adding _sk_ to the active endings, _r_ being dropt, the resulting _ts_, _ðs_ being written _z_ (§ 36): _kvezk_ (active _kveðr_ 'says'), _þu fekkzk_ (_fekkt_ 'gottest').

131. The following is the conjugation of the strong verb _gefa_ (give), which will show those endings which are common to all verbs:

Active

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE

_Present sg._ 1. gef gef-a 2. gef-r gef-ir 3. gef-r gef-i

_pl._ 1. gef-um gef-im 2. gef-ið gef-ið 3. gef-a gef-i

_Preterite sg._ 1. gaf gæf-a 2. gaf-t gæf-ir 3. gaf gæf-i

_pl._ 1. gāf-um gæf-im 2. gāf-uð gæf-ið 3. gāf-u gæf-i

_Imperative sg._ 2 gef; _pl._ 1 gef-um, 2 gef-ið. _Participle pres._ gef-andi; _pret._ gef-inn. _Infin._ gefa.

Middle

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE

_Pres. sg._ 1. gef-umk gef-umk 2. gef-sk gef-isk 3. gef-sk gef-isk

_pl._ 1. gef-umk gef-imk 2. gef-izk gef-izk 3. gef-ask gef-isk

_Pret. sg._ 1. gāf-umk gæf-umk 2. gaf-zk gæf-isk 3. gaf-sk gæf-isk

_pl._ 1. gāf-umk gæf-imk 2. gāf-uzk gæf-izk 3. gāf-usk gæf-isk

_Impers. sg._ 2 gef-sk; _pl._ 1 gef-umk, 2 gef-izk. _Partic. pres._ gef-andisk; _pret._ gef-izk _neut._ _Infin._ gef-ask.

Strong Verbs

132. In the strong verbs the plur. of the pret. indic. generally has a different vowel from that of the sing. The 1 sg. pret. of the middle voice always has the vowel of the pl. pret.: _gāfumk_. The pret. subj. has the vowel of the pret. indic. plur. mutated: _skaut_ (he shot), _skutu_ (they shot), _skyti_ (he might shoot). But there is no mutation in verbs of the first conj.: _hljōpi_, inf. _hlaupa_ (leap).

133. The pres. indic. sing. mutates the root-vowel in all three persons: _ek skȳt_, _þū skȳtr_, _hann skȳtr_, infin. _skjōta_ (shoot). _e_ however is not mutated: _ek gef_, _þū gefr_. The inflectional _r_ is liable to the same modifications as the _r_ of nouns (§ 32): _skīnn_, _vęx_, infin. _skīna_ (shine), _vaxa_ (grow).

134. Verbs in _ld_ change the _d_ into _t_ in the 1, 3 sg. pret. indic. and in the imper. sg.: _helt_ (held), _halt_ (hold!), infin. _halda_. _nd_ becomes _tt_, and _ng_ becomes _kk_ under the same conditions: _binda_ (bind), _ganga_ (go), pret. _batt_, _gekk_, imper. _bitt_, _gakk_.

135. The _t_ of the 2 sg. pret. indic. is doubled after a long accented vowel: _þū sātt_ (thou sawest). If the 1 sg. pret. indic. ends in _t_ or _ð_, the 2 sg. ends in _zt_: _lēt_ (I let), _þū lēzt_, _bauð_ (I offered) _þū bauzt_.

136. There are seven conjugations of strong verbs, distinguished mainly by the characteristic vowels of their preterites.

137.

I. 'Fall'-conjugation

INFIN. THIRD PRES. PRT. SING. PRT. PL. PTC. PRT.

falla (_fall_) fęllr fell fellu fallinn lāta (_let_) lætr lēt lētu lātinn rāða (_advise_) ræðr rēð rēðu rāðinn heita (_call_) heitr hēt hētu heitinn halda (_hold_) hęldr helt heldu haldinn ganga (_go_) gęngr gekk gengu gęnginn fā (_get_) fær fekk fengu fęnginn ----------------- auka (_increase_) eykr jōk jōku aukinn būa (_dwell_) bȳr bjō bjoggu būinn hǫggva (_hew_) hǫggr hjō hjoggu hǫggvinn hlaupa (_leap_) hleypr hljōp hljōpu hlaupinn