Practical Grammar and Composition · Part VII

PAST PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE

Simple

(Substitute have seen for be in the past potential of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute have been seeing for be in the past potential of to be.)

PAST PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE

(Substitute have been seen for be in the past potential of to be.)

IMPERATIVE MODE

ACTIVE VOICE

Simple

see.

Emphatic

do see.

Progressive

be seeing.

PASSIVE VOICE

be seen

INFINITIVE MODE

PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE

Simple

to see.

Progressive

to be seeing.

PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE

Simple

to be seen

PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE

Simple

to have seen.

Progressive

to have been seeing.

PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE

Simple

to have been seen.

PARTICIPLES

PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE

seeing

PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE

being seen

PAST TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE[*]

seen

[Footnote *: There is no past participle in the active voice.]

PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE

Simple

having seen

Progressive

having been seeing

PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE

having been seen

GERUNDS

PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE

seeing

PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE

being seen

PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE

having seen

PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE

having been seen

CHAPTER VI

CONNECTIVES: RELATIVE PRONOUNS, RELATIVE ADVERBS, CONJUNCTIONS, AND PREPOSITIONS

78. INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT CLAUSES. A sentence may consist of two or more independent clauses, or it may consist of one principal clause and one or more dependent clauses.

INDEPENDENT CLAUSES are joined by conjunctions; such as, hence, but, and, although, etc.

DEPENDENT CLAUSES are joined to the sentence by relative adverbs; such as, where, when, etc., or by relative pronouns; as, who, what, etc. These dependent clauses may have the same office in the sentence as nouns, pronouns, adjectives, or adverbs. (See §7.)

79. CASE AND NUMBER OF RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. Failure to use the proper case and number of the relative pronouns has already been touched upon (see §29), but a further mention of this fault may well be made here.

The relative pronoun has other offices in the sentence than that of connecting the dependent and principal clauses. It may serve as a subject or an object in the clause. The sentence, I wonder WHOM will be chosen, is wrong, because the relative here is the subject of will be chosen, not the object of wonder, and should have the nominative form who. Corrected, it reads, I wonder WHO will be chosen. Examine the following sentences:

Wrong: We know who we mean.

Right: We know whom we mean.

Wrong: You may give it to whoever you wish.

Right: You may give it to whomever you wish.

Wrong: Do you know whom it is?

Right: Do you know who it is? (Attribute complement.)

Wrong: Everybody who were there were disappointed. (Disagreement in number.)

Right: Everybody who was there was disappointed.

The relative pronoun takes the case required by the clause it introduces, not the case required by any word preceding it. Thus, the sentence, He gave it to WHO had the clearest right, is correct, because who is the subject of the verb had, and therefore in the nominative case. Give it to WHOMEVER they name, is right, because whomever is the object of they name.

Errors in the use of interrogative pronouns are made in the same way as in the use of the relatives. The interrogative pronoun has other functions besides making an interrogation. It serves also as the subject or object in the sentence. Care must be taken, then, to use the proper case. Say, Whom are you looking for? not, Who are you looking for?

NOTE. Some writers justify the use of who in sentences like the last one on the ground that it is an idiom. When, as in this book, the object is training in grammar, it is deemed better to adhere to the strictly grammatical form.

EXERCISE 58

In the following sentences, choose the proper forms from those italicized:

1. Who whom do you wish to see? 2. You will please write out the name of whoever whomever you want. 3. I saw who whom was there. 4. Who whom was it you saw? 5. Who whom did you see? 6. John did not know whom who to ask. 7. Why did he not ask whomever whoever was there? 8. Who whom can tell the difference? 9. Give it to whoever whomever you please. 10. None of those who were was wanted was were there. 11. The one of those who were was wanted was not there. 12. He is one of those fellows who are is always joking. 13. Whom who was called "The Rail Splitter?" 14. Do you not know whom who it was? 15. That is one of the birds that is are very rare. 16. One of the books which was were brought was one hundred years old. 17. I am not among those who whom were was there. 18. Only one of the men who were was on board survived. 19. Everyone else who was were there was were lost. 20. I am the one of the three men who is am are guilty. 21. He was chosen one of the four speakers who was were to speak on Commencement Day. 22. It was one of the books which were was being sought by the librarian. 23. Give it to one of the men who whom is found there. 24. To who whom did you give it? 25. It was for whomever whoever was present. 26. Ask whomever whoever is nearest the door.

80. CONJUNCTIVE OR RELATIVE ADVERBS. It is better to use a WHEN CLAUSE only in the subordinate part of the sentence, to state the time of an event. Compare the following:

Bad: He was turning the corner, when suddenly he saw a car approaching. Good: When he was turning the corner, he suddenly saw a car approaching.

Bad: When the news of the fire came, it was still in the early morning. Good: The news of the fire came when it was still in the early morning.

81. Do not use a WHEN or a WHERE CLAUSE in defining a subject or in place of a predicate noun.

Bad: Commencement is when one formally completes his school course. Good: Commencement is the formal completion of one's school course.

Bad: Astronomy is where one studies about the stars. Good: Astronomy is the study of the stars.

82. So, then, and also, the conjunctive adverbs, should not be used to unite coördinate verbs in a sentence unless and or but be used in addition to the adverb.

Bad: The boys' grades are low, so they indicate lack of application. Good: The boys' grades are low, and so indicate lack of application.

Bad: He read for a while, then fell asleep. Good: He read for a while, and then fell asleep.

Bad: I'll be down next week; also I shall bring Jack along. Good: I'll be down next week; and also I shall bring Jack along.

EXERCISE 59

Correct the following sentences:

1. Anarchism is when one believes in no government. 2. I am studying German, also French. 3. The clock had just struck five when the cab came. 4. I shall work until nine o'clock, then I shall retire. 5. I was sick all day, so I couldn't come to the office. 6. I was going up street yesterday when unexpectedly I met Jones. 7. Death is when one ceases to live. 8. Dinner is ready, so I shall have to cease work. 9. He told half of the story, then he suddenly stopped. 10. He loves good music, also good pictures. 11. A restaurant is where meals are served.

83. CONJUNCTIONS. There are certain conjunctions, and also certain pairs of conjunctions that frequently cause trouble.

AND or BUT should not be used to join a dependent clause to an independent clause; as, It was a new valise AND differing much from his old one. Say instead, It was a new valise, differing much from his old one, or It was a new valise, and differed very much from his old one. Similarly, It was a new book WHICH (not and which) interested him very much. This "and which" construction is a frequent error; and which should never be used unless there is more than one relative clause, and then never with the first one.

BUT or FOR should not be used to introduce both of two succeeding statements. Both of the following sentences are bad by reason of this error: He likes geometry, BUT fails in algebra, BUT studies it hard, He read all night, FOR the book interested him, FOR it was along the line of his ambition.

THAN and AS should not be followed by objective pronouns in sentences like this: I am as large AS HIM. The verb in these sentences is omitted. If it is supplied, the error will be apparent. The sentence would then read, I am as large as HIM (is large). The correct form is, I am as large as he (is large). Similarly, He is taller than I (am tall), She is brighter than HE (is bright).

AS may be used as either a conjunction or an adverb. He is AS tall AS I. The first as is an adverb, the second as is a conjunction. As is properly used as an adverb when the equality is asserted, but, when the equality is denied, so should be used in its place. He is AS old AS I, is correct, but the denial should be, He is NOT SO old AS I. After not do not use as when as is an adverb.

NEITHER, when used as a conjunction, should be followed by NOR; as, Neither he NOR (not or) I can come. Neither should never be followed by or.

EITHER, when used as a conjunction, should be followed by OR.

84. PLACING OF CORRELATIVES. The correlatives, such as neither--nor, either--or, not only--but also, should be placed in clear relation to similar parts of speech or similar parts of the sentence. One should not be directed toward a verb and the other toward some other part of speech.

Bad: He not only brought a book, but also a pencil. Good: He brought not only a book but also a pencil.

Bad: He would offer neither reparation nor would he apologize. Good: Neither would he offer reparation nor would he apologize. Good: He would offer neither reparation nor apology.

85. The prepositions without, except, like, and the adverb directly should not be used as conjunctions.

Wrong: Without (unless) you attend to class-room work, you cannot pass.

Wrong: This she would not do except (unless) we promised to pay at once.

Wrong: I acted just like (as) all the others (did).

Wrong: Directly (as soon as) he came, we harnessed the horses.

EXERCISE 60

Correct the following sentences:

1. Mary is as old as her. 2. I read as much as him. 3. He either wore his coat or a sort of vest. 4. He walked to the next town, but did not come back, but stayed all night. 5. We are better players than them. 6. He became thoroughly under the influence of the hypnotist and doing many absurd things. 7. There we met a man named Harmon and whom we found very entertaining. 8. They work harder than us. 9. John is not as tall as you. 10. Neither John or James is as tall as you. 11. I admire Mary more than she. 12. That can't be done without you get permission from the principal. 13. He dresses just like I do. 14. Directly he came we launched the canoes. 15. This cannot be done except you are a senior. 16. Neither she nor I was present. 17. He not only had a trained pig but also a goose. 18. Mary is not as pretty as Helen. 19. The men neither interested him nor the places. 20. He has traveled more than me. 21. We like him very much, for he is very interesting, for he has traveled so much. 22. It is a good book and which has much valuable information. 23. It was a rough town and harboring many criminals. 24. He took an interest neither in studies, nor did he care for athletics. 25. He neither took an interest in studies nor athletics.

EXERCISE 61

Construct sentences in which the following words are correctly used:

When, where, than, as--as, so--as, neither--nor, not only--but also, either--or, except, like, without, directly.

86. PREPOSITIONS. Some mistakes are made in the use of prepositions. Note the following brief list of words with the appropriate prepositions to be used with each:

agree with a person differ from (person or thing) agree to a proposition differ from or with an opinion bestow upon different from compare with (to determine value) glad of compare to (because of similarity) need of comply with part from (a person) confide in (to trust in) part with (a thing) confide to (to intrust to) profit by confer on (to give) prohibit from confer with (to talk with) reconcile to (a person) convenient to (a place) reconcile with (a statement) convenient for (a purpose) scared by dependent on think of or about

Do not use prepositions where they are unnecessary. Note the following improper expressions in which the preposition should be omitted:

continue on down until covered over inside of off of outside of started out where to? wish for to come remember of more than you think for

Do not omit any preposition that is necessary to the completeness of the sentence.

Bad: He is a dealer and shipper of coal.

Good: He is a dealer in and shipper of coal.

EXERCISE 62

Illustrate in sentences the correct use of each of the expressions listed under the first paragraph of §86.

Form sentences in which correct expressions are used in place of each of the incorrect expressions listed under the second paragraph of §86.

QUESTIONS FOR THE REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

SENTENCES, PARTS OF SPEECH, AND SENTENCE ELEMENTS. What are the four kinds of sentences? What are the different parts of speech? Define each. What is the difference between a clause and a phrase? What is the difference between a principal clause and a subordinate clause? Illustrate. Illustrate an adverbial clause. An adjective clause. Illustrate an adverbial phrase. An adjective phrase. What is an attribute complement? Illustrate. What is an object complement? Illustrate. Illustrate and explain the difference between simple, complex, and compound sentences.

NOUNS. What is the difference between singular and plural number? How is the plural of most nouns formed? Of nouns ending in s, ch, sh, x, or z? In y? In f or fe? In o? Of letters, figures, etc.? Of compound nouns? Of proper names and titles? How is the possessive case of most nouns formed? Of nouns ending in s or in an s sound? Of a compound noun or of a group of words? What is gender? How is the feminine gender formed from the masculine? What is the difference between common and proper nouns?

PRONOUNS. What is a pronoun? What is the antecedent of a pronoun? What is the rule for their agreement? What is meant by "person" in pronouns? Name five pronouns of each person. Name the pronouns that indicate masculine gender. Feminine. Neuter. What pronouns may be used to refer to antecedents that stand for persons of either sex? To antecedents that are collective nouns of unity? To animals? What are nouns of common gender? By what pronouns are they referred to? Should a singular or a plural pronoun be used after everybody? After some one? After some people? After two nouns connected by or? By nor? By and? What are relative pronouns? Name them. With what kind of antecedents may each be used? What is the difference between the explanatory relative and the restrictive relative? Illustrate. What is an interrogative pronoun? What pronouns may be used only in the nominative case? In the objective case? When should the nominative case be used? The objective? The possessive? May thou and you be used in the same sentence? When should but that be used, and when but what? May them be used adjectively? May which be used with a clause as an antecedent? May which and that, or who and that be used in the same sentence with the same antecedent?

ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. Distinguish between adjectives and adverbs. Illustrate. What is comparison? What is the positive degree, the comparative, the superlative? Illustrate each. May one say, He is the largest of the two? Reason? He is the larger of the three? Reason? He is the largest of all? Reason? Name three adjectives which cannot be compared. May one say, Paris is larger than any city? Reason? Paris is larger than all cities? Reason? Paris is the largest of any other city? Reason? Is a singular or plural noun demanded by every? By two? By various? By each? With how many objects may either be used? Neither? Where should the adjective or adverb be placed in the sentence? What is meant by a double negative? Illustrate. What is its effect? What is the definite article?

VERBS. What is a verb? What is a principal verb? An auxiliary? Illustrate. What are the principal parts of a verb? Name each. With what is the s-form used? With which form can no auxiliary be used? Make a sentence using each of the principal parts of the verbs, go, see, begin, come, drink, write. What is a transitive verb? Illustrate. An intransitive verb? Illustrate. What is the difference between active and passive voice? Does a transitive or does an intransitive verb have both voices? Illustrate the passive voice. Distinguish between the use of sit and set. Of lay and lie. Of rise and raise. What is the general rule for the use of the subjunctive mode? In what way and where does the subjunctive of be differ from the indicative in its forms? How do other verbs differ in the form of the subjunctive? In what respects should a verb agree with its subject? Does the form of the subject always determine its number? What should be the guide in determining whether to use a singular or plural verb? What class of subjects may not be used with don't, can't, etc.? What determines whether to use a singular or a plural verb after who, which, and that? What form of the verb is used after you? After they? When are shall and should used with I and we? When with other subjects? What rule governs their use in questions. What form is used in dependent clauses introduced by that, expressed or understood? In contingent clauses? Distinguish the use of may and might from can and could. What is a "dangling participle"? Is it an error? May the gerund be correctly used without any grammatical connection to the rest of the sentence? As the object of a preposition is a participle or gerund used? Which is used adjectively? Which may be used in connection with a possessive substantive as a modifier? When it is dependent on another verb, in what case should the present infinitive be used? When the perfect infinitive? What is a "split infinitive"? Need the parts of a compound predicate agree in tense?

CONNECTIVES. By what are independent clauses connected? Dependent clauses? Name two conjunctive adverbs. Should a when clause be used in a subordinate or in the principal part of the sentence? May so, then, or also be used alone as conjunctive adverbs? May and or but be used to join a dependent clause to a principal clause? What case should follow than or as? Should neither be followed by nor or or?

A GENERAL EXERCISE ON GRAMMAR

EXERCISE 63

Correct such of the following sentences as are wrong. After each sentence, in parenthesis, is placed the number of the paragraph in which is discussed the question involved:

1. He likes to boast of Mary cooking. (71.) 2. It is an error and which can't be corrected. (83.) 3. He said he should come if he could. (68.) 4. Can I use your pencil? (69.) 5. If you were I, what would you do? (68.) 6. We would like to go. (68.) 7. Neither the members of the committee nor the chairman is present. (63-5.) 8. He only spoke of history, not of art. (45.) 9. Socialists don't have no use for trusts. (46.) 10. This is John's book. (13.) 11. I feared that they should not come. (68.) 12. Mother's and father's death. (15-4.) 13. Mary was eager to have gone. (73.) 14. The boys, as well as their teacher, is to be praised. (64-1.) 15. The members of Congress watch each other. (44.) 16. I fear that I will take cold. (67.) 17. Some one has forgotten their umbrella. (20.) 18. Neither of the three is well. (43.) 19. Whom do you consider to be the brighter man in the class? (29) (41.) 20. He is determined that he shall go away. (67.) 21. Neither John nor James brought their books. (22.) 22. Whom did the man say he was? (29.) 23. His clothes look prettily. (38.) 24. The play progressed smooth until the last act. (38.) 25. Henry and William is to come to-morrow. (22.) 26. This is the lesser of the two evils. (40.) 27. Do you think you will stop at Chicago? (66.) 28. I am believed to be him. (29.) 29. He sings very illy. (40.) 30. When they come to build the bridge the stream was too deep for them to work. (54.) 31. She is very discontented. (48.) 32. Iron is the most useful of all other metals. (41-3.) 33. The barrel bursted from the pressure. (54.) 34. Shall my work soon begin? (66.) 35. He is six foot tall. (42.) 36. Seeing his mistake, I was not urged further by him. (71.) 37. Will the dog bite? (66.) 38. I am believed to be he. (29.) 39. I am eager to have seen it. (73.) 40. I think it shall rain soon. (67.) 41. She showed the dish to Mary and I. (29.) 42. Mary asked her mother to wash her face. (34-4.) 43. Who did the man say he was? (29.) 44. He deserved the place, for he is well educated, for he has been through Oxford University. (83.) 45. Choose who you please. (29.) 46. It don't make any difference about that. (64-5.) 47. The pump was froze fast. (54.) 48. A boat load of fishes was the days catch. (13-12.) 49. Wagner was never too rattled to play. (48.) 50. It is him. (29.) 51. He did it hisself. (31.) 52. He eat all there was on the table. (54.) 53. He sent a chest of tea, and it was made of tin. (34-4.) 54. The murderer was hung at noon. (54.) 55. It is a queer kind of a book. (47.) 56. You may give it to whoever you wish. (32.) 57. Whoever is nominated, will you vote for him? (32.) 58. I think I will find the work easy. (67.) 59. He sent his son abroad, being anxious for his health. (71.) 60. Neither they nor Mary was there. (22.) 61. Brewer's the blacksmith's shop. (15-6.) 62. Goliath was slew by David. (54.) 63. Myself and mother are sick. (30.) 64. John is as good, if not better than she. (41-4.) 65. If anybody creates a disturbance, have the police put them out. (21.) 66. The paper was addressed to John and herself. (30.) 67. John's and William's dog. (15-4.) 68. Tell the boy and girl to come here. (47.) 69. Everybody's else mail has came. (15, 54.) 70. He knows nothing about it but that he has read in the paper. (34-6.) 71. Awake me early in the morning. (57.) 72. If he be honest, he has not shown it. (60.) 73. Either Adams or Monroe were president. (63-4.) 74. Washington, the general and the president, was born on February 22d. (47.) 75. Horne's and Company's Store. (15-4.) 76. A hole had been tore in the ships' side. (54.) 77. I sat my chair by the window. (57.) 78. I sat myself down to rest. (57.) 79. I can't hardly see to write. (46.) 80. John is one of the people who comes each night. (64-4.) 81. He laid on the couch all day. (57.) 82. Death is when one ceases to live. (81.) 83. I was told to set here. (57.) 84. Iron is more useful than any other metal. (41-3.) 85. I not only told him, but also Morton. (84.) 86. McKinley was nowhere near so strenuous as Roosevelt. (40.) 87. It weighs several ton. (42.) 88. John is not as bright as Henry. (83.) 89. Germany and France's ships. (15-4.) 90. John's employer's wife's friend. (15-5.) 91. You had ought to go home. (54.) 92. This is the man who wants the ticket. (26.) 93. Which is the larger of the three? (41-1.) 94. An axe is the tool which they use. (26.) 95. It is that characteristic that makes him so disagreeable. (26.) 96. The horse which we drove, and the horse which you had last week are the same. (26, 34-5.) 97. I don't like those kind of people. (42.) 98. I do not question but what he is right. (34-6.) 99. Let him lay there. (57.) 100. My friend and me drove to Hughesville. (29.) 101. American and English grammar is alike. (63-1.) 102. William and Mary has to go to the city. (63-2.) 103. The boy, and not his parents, were wrong. (63-3.) 104. The price of meat has raised. (57.) 105. This train runs slow. (38.) 106. Which is the best of the two? (41-1.) 107. Iron is the most useful of all other metals. (41-3.) 108. Without the safety catch is raised, the gun can't be discharged. (85.) 109. The family is all at home. (62.) 110. The horse run the mile in two minutes. (54.) 111. This suit hasn't hardly been wore. (46, 54.) 112. The knife has laid there all day. (57.) 113. The noise of the street was very loud, which kept me awake. (34-9.) 114. The jury has agreed. (62.) 115. Such things make him terrible nervous. (38.) 116. Whom do you think is the brightest man? (29.) 117. The army were defeated. (62.) 118. If I was you, I should go at once. (60.) 119. She may go if she wishes or not. (76.) 120. Everybody whom was there was given a vote. (79.) 121. I like her better than you. (76.) 122. Who do you want? (79.) 123. Knox is one of the alumnuses of the college. (13-13.) 124. By law, no one is allowed to kill more than two deers. (13.) 125. The clock had just struck five when the cab came. (80.) 126. When was you there? (64-2.) 127. He is as tall as me. (83.) 128. Neither John nor her will come. (29.) 129. You hear such statements everywheres. (34-8, 40.) 130. You never can tell whom you will meet on the train. (79.) 131. I wish you were more like she. (29.) 132. Winter, with her frost, destroyed them all. (20.) 133. Tell everybody to cast their vote for Jones. (21.) 134. He is the only one of the members who pay dues. (64-4.) 135. Was it necessary, I should jump? (60.) 136. The production of oranges were encouraged. (64-3.) 137. The ship, with all its passengers, were lost. (64-1.) 138. He has fell from his chair. (57.) 139. I will raise and go to my father. (57.) 140. The policeman failed the ruffian with his club. (57.) 141. They make pottery in Trenton. (34-8.) 142. Iron is more useful than all metals. (41-3.) 143. I intended to and have endeavored to finish the work. (75.) 144. He won't come, except we pay his expenses. (85.) 145. Neither German or French is taught there. (83.) 146. We have needed you and did our best to find you. (75.) 147. He awoke at nine. (57.) 148. I wish I was a bird. (60.) 149. If it rains, I stay at school. (60.) 150. Thou shouldst pray when you are in trouble. (34-2.) 151. The Indians, they hid behind trees. (34-3.) 152. We started out for the city at noon. (86.) 153. The king, he said they should kill him. (34-3.) 154. Outside of the house stood a large moving van. (86.)