The Psychology of Management · Part XIII

STANDARD RECORDS PERMIT OF STANDARD PROGRAMMES.--In the last case, the record is standardized, that is, the result of the method of processes of analysis and synthesis. Through this process, as has been shown, the reason for success is discovered and rendered usable. The programme becomes standard, results can be predicted accurately, and methods by which these results can be best obtained are also standard.

It may at first escape notice that these standardized records, of the ultimate or scientific management type, imply not a greater rigidity, but a greater elasticity. This because of the nature of the elements of the records, which may, in time, be combined into a great number of different, predictable programmes.

SUMMARY

RESULTS OF RELATIONS BETWEEN RECORDS AND PROGRAMMES ON THE WORK.--The most noteworthy result of the closer relations between records and programmes which appear during the evolution of Scientific Management is the fact that they cause constant simplification. The more carefully records are standardized, the simpler becomes the drafting of the programme. As more and more records become standard, the drafting of programmes becomes constantly an easier and cheaper process.

PROGRAMMES BECOME RECORDS.--Under Traditional Management the record that follows a programme may appear very different from the programme. Under Scientific Management the record that follows a programme most closely resembles the programme. Improvements are not made between the programme and the following record,--they find their place between the record and the following programme. Thus programmes and records may be grouped in pairs, by similarity, with a likelihood of difference between any one pair (one programme plus one record) and other pairs.

RESULT ON THE WORKER.--The greatest effect, on the worker, of these relations of record to programme under Scientific Management is the confidence that he gains in the judgment that is an outcome of Scientific Management. When the worker sees that Scientific Management makes possible accurate predictions of times, schedules, tasks, and performance; that the methods prescribed invariably enable him to achieve prescribed results, his confidence in Scientific Management grows. So also does the manager's confidence in Scientific Management grow,--and in this mutual confidence in the system of management is another bond of sympathy.

The place left for suggestions and improvements, in the ever-present opportunities to better standards, fulfills that longing for a greater efficiency that is the cause of progress.

CHAPTER VII FOOTNOTES:

1. Gillette and Dana, Cost Keeping and Management Engineering, p. 65. 2. H. L. Gantt, Paper No. 1002, A. S. M. E., page 2. 3. Gillette and Dana, Cost Keeping and Management Engineering, p. VII. 4. H. L. Gantt, Paper No. 1002, A. S. M. E., p. 1336. 5. William James, Psychology, Briefer Course, p. 179.

CHAPTER VIII

TEACHING

DEFINITION OF TEACHING.--The Century Dictionary defines "teaching" as "the act or business of instructing," with synonyms: "training" and "education;" and "to teach" is defined:--

1. "to point out, direct, show;" "to tell, inform, instruct, explain;" 2. "to show how (to do something); hence, to train;" 3. "to impart knowledge or practical skill to;" "to guide in learning, educate."

"Educate," we find meaning "to instruct, to teach methodically, to prescribe to; to indoctrinate;" and by "indoctrinate" is meant "to cause to hold as a doctrine or belief." "To educate," says the same authority, "is to develop mentally or morally by instruction; to qualify by instruction and training for the business and duty of life."

UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT NO DEFINITE PLAN OF TEACHING.-- Under Traditional Management there is either no definite scheme of teaching by the management itself, or practically none; at least, this is usually the condition under the most elementary types of Traditional Management. In the very highest examples of the traditional plan the learner may be shown how, but this showing is not usually done in a systematic way, and under so-called Traditional Management is seldom in the form of written instructions.

NO SPECIFIED TIME FOR OR SOURCE OF THE TEACHING.--Under Traditional Management there is no particular time in which this teaching goes on, no particular time allowed for the worker to ask for the instruction, nor is there any particular source from which he obtains the instructions. There is, moreover, almost every hindrance against his getting any more instruction than he absolutely must have in order to get the work done. The persons to whom he can possibly appeal for further information might discharge him for not already knowing. These persons are, if he is an apprentice, an older worker; if he is a journeyman, the worker next to him, or the foreman, or someone over him. An important fact bearing on this subject is that it is not to the pecuniary advantage of any particular person to give this teaching. In the first place, if the man be a fellow-worker, he will want to do his own work without interruption, he will not want to take the time off; moreover, he regards his particular skill as more or less of a trade secret, and desires to educate no more people than necessary, to be as clever as he is. In the third place, there is no possible reward for giving this instruction. Of course, the worker necessarily improves under any sort of teaching, and if he has a receptive mind, or an inventive mind, he must progress constantly, either by teaching himself or by the instruction, no matter how haphazard.

GREAT VARIATION UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT.--Only discussion of teaching under this type of management with many men who have learned under it, can sufficiently emphasize the variations to be found. But the consensus of opinion would seem to prove that an apprentice of only a generation ago was too often hazed, was discouraged from appealing for assistance or advice to the workers near him, or to his foreman; was unable to find valuable literature for home-study on the subject of his trade. The experience of many an apprentice was, doubtless, different from this, but surely the mental attitude of the journeymen who were the only teachers must have tended toward some such resulting attitude of doubt or hesitancy in the apprentice.

MENTAL ATTITUDE OF THE WORKER-TEACHER.--Under the old plan of management, the apprentice must appear to the journeyman more or less of a supplanter. From the employee's standpoint it was most desirable that the number of apprentices be kept down, as an oversupply of labor almost invariably resulted in a lowering of wages. The quicker and better the apprentice was taught, the sooner he became an active competitor. There seldom existed under this type of management many staff positions to which the workers could hope to be promoted, certainly none where they could utilize to the fullest extent their teaching ability. There was thus every reason for a journeyman to regard the teaching of apprentices as unremunerative, irksome, and annoying.

WORKER NOT TO BLAME FOR THIS.--The worker is not to be blamed for this attitude. The conditions under which he worked made it almost inevitable. Not only could he gain little or nothing by being a successful teacher, but also the bullying instinct was appealed to constantly, and the desire of the upper classmen in hazing days to make the next class "pay up" for the hazing that they were obliged to endure in their Freshman year.

ATTITUDE OF THE LEARNER.--The attitude of the typical learner must frequently be one of hesitancy and self-distrust if not of fear, though conditions were so varied as almost to defy classification. One type of apprentice was expected to learn merely by observation and imitation. Another was practically the chore boy of the worker who was assigned to teach him. A third was under no direct supervision at all, but was expected to "keep busy," finding his work by himself. A fourth was put through a severe and valuable training by a martinet teacher,--and so on.

TEACHING OFTEN PAINSTAKING.--It is greatly to the credit of the worker under this type of management that he was, in spite of all drawbacks, occasionally a painstaking teacher, to the best of his lights. He insisted on application, and especially on quality of work. He unselfishly gave of his own time and skill to help the apprentice under him.

METHODS OF TEACHING USUALLY WRONG.--Unfortunately, through no fault of the worker-teacher the teaching was usually done according to wrong methods. Quality of resulting output was so emphasized that neither speed nor correct motions were given proper consideration.

TEACHER NOT TRAINED TO TEACH.--The reason for this was that the worker had no training to be a teacher. In the first place, he had no adequate idea of his own capabilities, and of which parts of his own method were fit to be taught. In the second place, he did not know that right motions must be insisted on first, speed next, and quality of output third; or in other words that if the motions were precise enough, the quality would be first. In the fourth place he had no pedagogical training.

LACK OF STANDARDS AN UNDERLYING LACK.--All shortcoming in the old time teaching may be traced to lack of standards. The worker had never been measured, hence had no idea of his efficiency, or of possible efficiency. No standard methods made plain the manner in which the work should be done. Moreover, no standard division and assignment of work allowed of placing apprentices at such parts of the work that quality could be given third place. No standard requirements had determined his fitness as a teacher, nor the specialty that he should teach, and no incentive held his interest to the teaching. These standards the worker-teacher could not provide for himself, and the wonder is that the teaching was of such a high character as it was.

VERY LITTLE TEACHING OF ADULTS.--Under Traditional Management, teaching of adults was slight,--there being little incentive either to teacher or to learner, and it being always difficult for an adult to change his method.[1] Moreover, it would be difficult for a worker using one method to persuade one using another that his was the better, there being no standard. Even if the user of the better did persuade the other to follow his method, the final result might be the loss of some valuable elements of the poorer method that did not appear in the better.

FAILURE TO APPRECIATE THE IMPORTANCE OF TEACHING.--An underestimation of the importance of teaching lay at the root of the lack of progress. This is so directly connected with all the other lacks of Traditional Management,--provision for adequate promotion and pay, standards, and the other underlying principles of Scientific Management, especially the appreciation of coöperation,--that it is almost impossible to disentangle the reasons for it. Nor would it be profitable to attempt to do so here. In considering teaching under Scientific Management we shall show the influence of the appreciation of teaching,--and may deduce the lacks from its non-appreciation, from that discussion.

UNDER TRANSITORY SYSTEM TEACHING BECOMES MORE IMPORTANT.--Under Transitory Management the importance of teaching becomes at once more apparent. This, both by providing for the teaching of foremen and journeymen as well as apprentices, and by the providing of written systems of instructions as to best practice. The worker has access to all the sources of information of Traditional Management, and has, besides these, in effect, unsystematically derived standards to direct him.

SYSTEMS MAKE INSTRUCTION ALWAYS AVAILABLE.--The use of written systems enables every worker to receive instruction at any time, to feel free to ask it, and to follow it without feeling in any way humiliated.

The result of the teaching of these systems is a decided improvement in methods. If the written systems are used exclusively as a source of teaching, except for the indefinite teachers of the Traditional Management, the improvement becomes definitely proportioned to the time which the man spends upon the studying and to the amount of receptive power which he naturally has.

INCENTIVES TO CONFORM TO SYSTEM.--The worker has incentives to follow the systems--

1. In that he is required to render reasons in writing for permanent filing, for every disobedience of system. 2. That, as soon as work is placed on the bonus basis, the first bonus that is given is for doing work in accordance with the prescribed method.

Even before the bonus is paid, the worker will not vary for any slight reasons, if he positively knows at the time that he must account for so doing, and that he will be considered to have "stacked his judgment" against that of the manager. Being called to account for deviations gives the man a feeling of responsibility for his act, and also makes him feel his close relationship with the managers.

NO SET TIME FOR USING SYSTEMS.--There is, under this type of management, no set time for the study of the systems.

SYSTEMS INELASTIC.--Being written, these systems have all the disadvantages of anything that is written. That is to say, they require considerable adaptability on the part of the man who is using them. He must consider his own mind, and the amount of time which he must put on studying; he must consider his own work, and adapting that method to his work while still obeying instructions. In the case of the system being in great detail, he can usually find a fairly detailed description of what he is going to do, and can use that. In the case of the system being not so complete, if his work varies, he must show intelligence in varying the system, and this intelligence often demands a knowledge which he has not, and knows not where to obtain.

WASTE OF TIME FROM UNSTANDARDIZED SYSTEMS.--The time necessitated by the worker's laying out details of his method is taken from the total time of his working day, hence in so far cuts down his total product. Moreover, if no record is kept of the details of his planning the next worker on the same kind of work must repeat the investigation.

LATER TRANSITIONAL MANAGEMENT EMPHASIZES USE OF STANDARDS.--Later Transitional Management eliminates this waste of time by standardizing methods composed of standardized timed units, thus both rendering standards elastic, and furnishing details.

TEACHING MOST IMPORTANT UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Teaching is a most important element under Scientific Management not only because it increases industrial efficiency, but also because it fosters industrial peace.[2]

IMPORTANCE DEPENDS ON OTHER ELEMENTS OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--As we have seen, Scientific Management has as a basic idea the necessity of divided responsibility, or functionalization. This, when accompanied by the interdependent bonus, creates an incentive to teach and an incentive to learn. Scientific Management divides the planning from the performing in order to centralize and standardize knowledge in the planning department, thus making all knowledge of each available to all. This puts at the disposal of all more than any could have alone. The importance of having this collected and standardized knowledge conveyed best to the worker cannot be overestimated. Through this knowledge, the worker is able to increase his output, and thus insure the lowered costs, that provide the funds with which to pay his higher wages,--to increase his potential as well as actual efficiency, and best to coöperate with other workers and with the management.

IMPORTANCE OF TEACHING ELEMENT BEST CLAIM TO PERMANENCE OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Upon the emphasis which it places on teaching rests/a large part of the claim of Scientific Management for permanence.[3] We have already shown the derivation of the standards which are taught. We have shown that the relation between the planning and performing departments is based largely on means and methods for teaching. We have only to show here that the teaching is done in accordance with those laws of Psychology that are the laws of Pedagogy.

TEACHING IN SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT NOT THE RESULT OF THEORY ONLY.--The methods of teaching under Scientific Management were not devised in response to theories of education. They are the result of actual experience in getting work done most successfully. The teachers, the methods, the devices for teaching,--all these grew up to meet needs, as did the other elements of Scientific Management.

CONFORMITY OF TEACHING TO PSYCHOLOGICAL LAWS PROOF OF WORTH OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The fact that teaching under Scientific Management does conform, as will be shown, to the laws of Psychology, is an added proof of the value of Scientific Management.

CHANGE FROM TEACHING UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT.--Mr. Gantt says, "The general policy of the past has been to drive; but the era of force must give way to that of knowledge, and the policy of the future will be to teach and to lead, to the advantage of all concerned."[4] This "driving" element of Traditional Management is eliminated by Scientific Management.

NECESSITY FOR PERSONALLY DERIVED JUDGMENT ELIMINATED.--So also is eliminated the old belief that the worker must go through all possible experiences in order to acquire "judgment" as to best methods. If the worker must pass through all the stages of the training of the old-fashioned mechanic, and this is seriously advocated by some, he may fail to reach the higher planes of knowledge afforded by training under Scientific Management, by reason of sheer lack of time. If, therefore, by artificial conditions caused by united agreement and collective bargaining, workmen insist upon forcing upon the new learners the old-school training, they will lose just so much of the benefits of training under those carefully arranged and carefully safe-guarded processes of industrial investigation in which modern science has been successful. To refuse to start in where others have left off, is really as wasteful as it would be to refuse to use mathematical formulas because they have been worked out by others. It might be advocated that the mind would grow by working out every possible mathematical formula before using it, but the result would be that the student would be held back from any further original investigation. Duplicating primary investigations might be original work for him, but it would be worthless as far as the world is concerned. The same is absolutely true in management. If the worker is held back by acquiring every bit of knowledge for himself instead of taking the work of others as the starting point, the most valuable initiative will be lost to the world.

BAD HABITS THE RESULT OF UNDIRECTED LEARNING.--Even worse than the waste of time would be the danger of acquiring habits of bad methods, habits of unnecessary motions, habits of inaccurate work; habits of inattention. Any or all of these might develop. These are all prevented under Scientific Management by the improved methods of teaching.

VALUABLE ELEMENTS OF TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT CONSERVED.--There are, however, many valuable elements of the old Traditional system of teaching and of management which should be retained and not be lost in the new.

For example,--the greatest single cause of making men capable under the old plan was the foreman's unconscious ability to make his men believe, before they started a task, that they could achieve it.

It must not be thought that because of the aids to the teacher under Scientific Management the old thought of personality is lost. The old ability to convert a man to the belief that he could do a thing, to inspire him with confidence in his foreman, with confidence in himself, and a desire to do things, is by no means lost, on the contrary it is carefully preserved under Scientific Management.

TEACHING OF TRANSITORY MANAGEMENT SUPPLEMENTED.--In the transforming of Transitory into Scientific Management, we note that the process is one of supplementing, not of discarding. Written system, which is the distinguishing characteristic of Transitory Management, is somewhat limited in its scope, but its usefulness is by no means impaired.

SCOPE OF TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Under Scientific Management teaching must cover

1. Teaching of right methods of doing work, 2. Teaching of right habits of doing the right methods.

The teacher must so impart the knowledge that judgment can be acquired without the learner being obliged himself to experience all the elements of the judgment.

NEEDS FOR TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The needs for this teaching have been stated, but may be recapitulated here.

1. Worker may not observe his own mistakes. 2. Worker has no opportunity under the old industrial conditions to standardize his own methods. 3. Worker must know standard practice. 4. Waste can be eliminated by the teaching. 5. Right habits can be instilled.

SOURCES OF TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The sources of teaching under Scientific Management are

1. Friends or Relatives } 2. Fellow workers } If the worker chooses 3. Literature of the Trade } to use them. 4. Night schools and study } 5. The Management. }

METHODS OF TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The Methods of Teaching under Scientific Management are

1. Written, by means of

(a) Instruction Cards telling what is to be done and how. (b) Systems, explaining the why. (c) Drawings, charts, plans, photographs, illustrating methods. (d) Records made by the worker himself.

2. Oral, the teaching of the Functional Foremen.

3. Object-lessons:

(a) Exhibits. (b) Working models. (c) Demonstrations by the Teacher. (d) Demonstrations by the worker under Supervision.

WORKER A SOURCE OF THESE METHODS.--It should be often stated that, ultimately, the elements of all methods are derived from a study of workers, and that the worker should be enabled to realize this. Only when he feels that he is a part of what is taught, and that the teachers are a means of presenting to him the underlying principles of his own experience, will the worker be able to coöperate with all his energy.

INSTRUCTION CARDS ARE DIRECTIONS.--Instruction Cards are direct instructions for each piece of work, giving, in most concise form, closely defined description of standard practice and directions as to how each element of the standardized task is to be performed. The makers know that they must make their directions clear ultimately, therefore they strive constantly for clearness.

INSTRUCTION CARDS TEACH DIRECTLY AND INDIRECTLY.--These Instruction Cards not only teach the worker directly best to do his work, but also teach him indirectly how to become a leader, demonstrator, teacher and functional foreman. Study of them may lead to an interest in, and a study of, elements, and to preparation for becoming one of the planning department. The excellent method of attack of the Instruction Card cannot fail to have some good effect, even upon such workers as do not consciously note it.[5]

SYSTEMS ARE REASONS AND EXPLANATIONS.--"Systems" or standing orders are collections of detailed reasons for, and explanations of, the decisions embodied in the directions of the Instruction Cards. There is a system showing the standard practice of each kind of work.

THEY ENLIST THE JUDGMENT OF THE WORKER.--Under really successful management, it is realized that the worker is of an inquiring mind, and that, unless this inquiring tendency of his is recognized, and his curiosity is satisfied, he can never do his best work. Unless the man knows why he is doing the thing, his judgment will never reënforce his work. He may conform to the method absolutely, but his work will not enlist his zeal unless he knows just exactly why he is made to work in the particular manner prescribed. This giving of the "why" to the worker through the system, and thus allowing his reason to follow through all the details, and his judgment to conform absolutely, should silence the objections of those who claim that the worker becomes a machine, and that he has no incentive to think at his work. On the contrary, it will be seen that this method furnishes him with more viewpoints from which he can consider his work.

DRAWINGS, CHARTS, PLANS AND PHOTOGRAPHS MEANS OF MAKING DIRECTIONS CLEARER.--The Instruction Cards are supplemented with drawings, charts, plans and stereoscopic and timed motion photographs,--any or all,--in order to make the directions of the Instruction Cards plainer.